Agência Federal de Gestão de Emergências: diferenças entre revisões
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[[Imagem:FEMA logo.svg|150px|right|FEMA]]
A '''Federal Emergency Management Agency''' (''Agência Federal de Gerenciamento de Emergências'', abreviada como '''FEMA''') é uma agência do governo dos [[
|url=http://www.fas.org/irp/offdocs/eo/eo-12127.htm
|title=Executive Order 12127--Federal Emergency Management Agency
|publisher=Federation of American Scientists
}}</ref><ref name="newsm79">{{cite news
|first=Lynn
|last=Woolley
|url=http://www.newsmax.com/archives/articles/2005/9/12/102827.shtml
|title=FEMA - Disaster of an Agency
|date=12 September 2005
|accessdate=2007-12-12
|quote=And so it has been since [[Jimmy Carter]] created FEMA by executive order on March 30, 1979.
}} See Federation of American Scientists reference above for effective date of 1 April 1979 stated in Executive Order 12127.
</ref>
O objetivo principal da FEMA é coordenar as respostas a [[desastre]]s que ocorram nos Estados Unidos e que superem os recursos das autoridades locais e do estado. O governador do estado no qual o desastre aconteceu deve declarar um [[estado de emergência] e solicitar formalmente ao [[Presidente dos Estados Unidos|Presidente]] que a FEMA e o [[Governo Federal dos Estados Unidos|governo federal]] respondam ao desastre. A FEMA também fornece estes serviços para os territórios dos Estados Unidos, como [[Porto Rico]]. A única exceção é quando uma emergência e/ou desastre ocorra em propriedade federal, por exemplo, [[Atentado de Oklahoma City|o atentado]] em [[Oklahoma City]], [[Oklahoma]], em [[1995]], ou [[Acidente do Vaivém Espacial Columbia|o desastre]] com o [[ônibus espacial Columbia]] em [[2003]].
Ao mesmo tempo que o apoio em terra ou esforços de recuperação de desastres seja a maior parte da missão da FEMA, a agência fornece aos governos locais e estaduais experts em várias especialidades e fundos para os esforços de reconstrução e fundos para recuperação da infraestrutura, junto com a [[Small Business Administration]]. A FEMA também apóia indivíduos e empresas com empréstimos a juros baixos. Além disso, a FEMA ainda providencia fundos para treinamento em equipes de emergência nos Estados Unidos e seus territórios como parte de seus esforços para preparação a desastres.
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==History==
Federal emergency management in the United States has existed in one form or another for over 200 years. The history of FEMA is summarized as follows.
===Prior to 1930s===
A series of devastating fires struck the port city of [[Portsmouth, New Hampshire|Portsmouth]], [[New Hampshire]], early in the 19th century. The [[7th United States Congress|7th]] [[United States Congress|U.S. Congress]] passed a number of measures in the [[Act of Congress|Congressional Act]] of 1803 that provided relief for Portsmouth merchants by waiving duties and [[tariff]]s on [[Import (international trade)|imported]] [[Good (economics and accounting)|goods]]. This is widely considered the first piece of legislation passed by the federal government that provided relief after a disaster.<ref>[http://www.cstx.gov/home/index.asp?page=1836 A History of Emergency Management]</ref>
Between 1803 and 1930, ''[[ad hoc]]'' legislation was passed more than 100 times for relief or compensation after a disaster. Examples include the waiving of duties and tariffs to the merchants of New York City after the [[Great Fire of New York (1835)]]. After President [[Abraham Lincoln]]'s [[Abraham Lincoln assassination|assassination]] at [[John T. Ford]]'s [[Ford's Theatre|Theatre]], the [[54th United States Congress|54th Congress]] passed legislation compensating those who were injured in the theater.
===Piecemeal approach (1930s–1960s)===
After the start of the [[Great Depression]] in 1929, President [[Herbert Hoover]] had commissioned the [[Reconstruction Finance Corporation]] in 1932.<ref>[http://eh.net/encyclopedia/article/butkiewicz.finance.corp.reconstruction Article on the RFC from EH.NET's Encyclopedia]</ref> The purpose of the RFC was to lend money to banks and institutions to stimulate economic activity. RFC was also responsible for dispensing federal dollars in the wake of a disaster. RFC can be considered the first organized federal disaster response agency.
The [[Federal Highway Administration|Bureau of Public Roads]] in 1934 was given authority to finance the reconstruction of highways and roads after a disaster. The [[Flood Control Act of 1944]] also gave the [[United States Army Corps of Engineers|U.S. Army Corps of Engineers]] authority over flood control and irrigation projects and thus played a major role in disaster recovery from flooding.
This "piecemeal approach" to disaster recovery was troubled by poor interagency cooperation and bureaucratic [[red tape]].{{Citation needed|date=February 2009}}
===Department of Housing and Urban Development (1973–1979)===
Federal disaster relief and recovery was brought under the umbrella of the [[Department of Housing and Urban Development]] (HUD),in 1973 by Presidential Reorganization Plan No. 1 of 1973, and the Federal Disaster Assistance Administration was created as an organizational unit within the department. This agency would oversee disasters such as occurring until its incorporation into the FEMA, Federal Emergency Management Agency, created by Presidential Reorganization Plan No. 1 of 1978, and implemented by Executive Orders 12127 and 12148.
Prior to implementation of Reorganization Plan No. 3 of 1978, many government agencies were still involved in disaster relief; in some cases, more than 100 separate agencies might be jockeying for control and jurisdiction of a disaster.<ref name="FEMA History">[http://www.fema.gov/about/history.shtm FEMA History]</ref>
Congress met the nation’s needs for disaster preparedness and assistance somewhat reactively, by enacting various forms of legislation in response to recognized needs.<ref name="Falkenrath">Falkenrath, Richard S., "Problems of Preparedness: U.S. Readiness for a Domestic Terrorist Attack" (2001)International Security, Boston.</ref>
Over the years, Congress increasingly extended the range of covered categories for assistance, and several presidential executive orders did the same. By enacting these various forms of legislative direction, Congress established a category for annual budgetary amounts of assistance to victims of various types of hazards or disasters, it specified the qualifications, and then it established or delegated the responsibilities to various federal and non-federal agencies.<ref name="Bea">Bea, Keith, "Proposed Transfer of FEMA to the Department of Homeland Security", Order Code RL31510 (updated 29 July 2002), Report for Congress, Congressional Research Service: Library of Congress.</ref>
In time, this expanded array of agencies themselves underwent reorganization. One of the first such federal agencies was the [[Federal Civil Defense Administration]], which operated within the Executive Office of the President. Functions to administer disaster relief were then given to the President himself, who delegated to the Housing and Home Finance Administration. Subsequently, a new office of the Office of Defense Mobilization was created. Then, the new Office of Defense and Civilian Mobilization, managed by the EOP; after that, the Office of Civil and Defense Mobilization, which renamed the former agency; then, the [[Office of Civil Defense]], under the [[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]] (DoD); the [[Department of Health, Education and Welfare]] (HEW); the [[United States Department of Agriculture|Department of Agriculture]]; the Office of Emergency Planning (OEmP); the Defense Civil Preparedness Agency (replacing the OCD in the DoD); the [[United States Department of Housing and Urban Development|Department of Housing and Urban Development]] (HUD) and the [[General Services Administration]] (GSA) (upon termination of the OEmP).<ref name="Bea"/>
These actions demonstrated that during those years, the nation’s domestic preparedness was addressed by several disparate legislative actions, motivated by policy and budgetary earmarking, and not by a single, unifying, comprehensive strategy to meet the nation’s needs over time.<ref name="Falkenrath"/> Then, in 1978 an effort was made to consolidate the several singular functions; FEMA was created to house civil defense and disaster preparedness under one roof. This was a very controversial decision.<ref name="Bea"/>
Many{{Who|date=February 2009}} felt the coordination of federal preparedness functions would be too challenging, and the needs of developing civil defense preparedness might lose its priority if it was included within the same organization handling natural disaster response. In the end, FEMA was created as the primary federal source for both financial and technical support assistance to victims in need of emergency aid. The controversy was not resolved by the decision, though. Those who managed the mandates of the agency still held their particular points of view concerning which function of FEMA was more important, civil defense or natural disaster preparedness, and the issue failed to resolve itself due to Congress’ prior history of placing value on policy and the budgetary concerns of the times. Eventually, these points of view developed their separate cultures within FEMA, causing a “stovepiping” within the agency, thus creating insularity and preventing a mutuality and collegial sharing of interests and resources.<ref name="Bea"/>{{POV-statement|date=February 2009}}
Many{{Who|date=February 2009}} feel that the hybrid that FEMA became never was able to meld the two separate and distinct functions, those of counter terrorism and natural disaster management. They feel that this essentially unyielding dichotomy has created the several problems for which FEMA has been criticized over the years.<ref name="Falkenrath"/>
Until April 1, 1979,<ref name="newsm79"/> there was no single federal agency to carry out the various functions of disaster assistance and civil defense.
===FEMA as an independent agency (1979–2003)===
''[[National Fire Prevention and Control Administration]] redirects here''
[[Image:US-FEMA-Pre2003Seal.svg|right|thumb|200px|FEMA [[Seal (device)|seal]] before 2003]]
FEMA was established under the 1978 ''Reorganization Plan No. 3'', and activated April 1, 1979 by [[Jimmy Carter]] in his [http://www.archives.gov/federal-register/codification/executive-order/12127.html Executive Order 12127].
In July, Carter signed [[Executive Order 12148]] shifting disaster relief efforts to the new federal level agency. FEMA absorbed the Federal Insurance Administration, the National Fire Prevention and Control Administration, the [[National Weather Service]] Community Preparedness Program, the Federal Preparedness Agency of the [[General Services Administration]] and the Federal Disaster Assistance Administration activities from [[United States Department of Housing and Urban Development|HUD]]. FEMA was also given the responsibility for overseeing the nation's [[Civil Defense]], a function which had previously been performed by the [[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]]'s Defense Civil Preparedness Agency.
One of the first disasters FEMA responded to was the dumping of toxic waste into [[Love Canal]] in [[Niagara Falls, New York]] in the late 1970s. FEMA also responded to the [[Three Mile Island]] nuclear accident where the [[nuclear power plant|nuclear generating station]] suffered a partial [[Nuclear meltdown|core meltdown]]. These disasters, while showing the agency could function properly, also uncovered some inefficiencies.{{Citation needed|date=February 2009}}
In 1993, President [[Bill Clinton]] appointed [[James Lee Witt]] as FEMA Director. In 1996, the agency was elevated to cabinet rank.<ref name=rank>{{cite press release
| title = President Clinton Raises FEMA Director to Cabinet Status
| publisher = Feberal Emergency Management Agency
| date = 1996-02-26
| url = http://web.archive.org/web/19970116185236/www.fema.gov/home/NWZ96/cabinet.htm
| accessdate = 2010-03-03
| quote = }}</ref> This was not continued by President George W. Bush.<ref name=cqfema>{{cite web
|author = Fowler, Daniel
| title = Emergency Managers Make It Official: They Want FEMA Out of DHS
| publisher = ''CQ Politics''
| date = 2008-11-19
| url = http://www.cqpolitics.com/wmspage.cfm?docID=hsnews-000002988269&cpage=1
| format =
| accessdate = 2010-03-03
| quote = During the Clinton administration, FEMA Administrator James Lee Witt met with the cabinet. His successor in the Bush administration, Joe M. Allbaugh, did not. }} (Archived by WebCite at [http://www.webcitation.org/5ny13zsIv Webcitation.org])</ref> Witt initiated reforms that would help to streamline the disaster recovery and mitigation process. The end of the [[Cold War]] also allowed the agency’s resources to be turned away from civil defense to natural disaster preparedness.<ref name="FEMA History"/>
After FEMA's creation through reorganization and executive orders, Congress continued to expand FEMA’s authority by assigning responsibilities to it. Those responsibilities include dam safety under the National Dam Safety Program Act; disaster assistance under the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act; earthquake hazards reduction under the Earthquake Hazards Reduction Act of 1977 and further expanded by Executive Order 12699, regarding safety requirements for federal buildings and Executive Order 12941, concerning the need for cost estimates to seismically retrofit federal buildings; emergency food and shelter under the Stewart B. McKinney Homeless Assistance Act of 1987; fire control, under the Federal Fire Prevention and Control Act of 1974; hazardous materials, under the [[Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act of 1986]]; insurance, under the [[National Flood Insurance Act of 1968]]; national security, under the [[National Security Act of 1947]], the Defense Production Act of 1950; and various executive orders under presidents [[Dwight D. Eisenhower|Eisenhower]], [[Ronald Reagan|Reagan]], [[George H.W. Bush|H. W. Bush]], Clinton, and [[George W. Bush|G.W. Bush]].<ref name="Bea"/>
In addition, FEMA received authority for counter terrorism through the Nunn-Lugar-Domenici amendment under the Weapons of Mass Destruction Act of 1996, which was a response to the recognized vulnerabilities of the U.S. after the [[sarin gas attack on the Tokyo subway]] in 1995.<ref name="Falkenrath"/>
Congress funded FEMA through a combination of regular appropriations and emergency funding in response to events.<ref name="Murry">Murry, Justin (updated July 10, 2006). "Emergency Supplemental Appropriations Legislation for Disaster Assistance: Summary Data FY1989 to FY2006", CRS Report for Congress, Congressional Research Service: The Library of Congress.</ref>
===FEMA under Department of Homeland Security (2003–present)===
[[Image:Appropriations Act of 2004.jpg|thumb|200px|President [[George W. Bush]] signs the [[Homeland Security Appropriations Act]] of 2004]]
Following the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]], Congress passed the [[Homeland Security Act of 2002]], which created the [[Department of Homeland Security]] (DHS) to better coordinate among the different federal agencies that deal with law enforcement, disaster preparedness and recovery, border protection and civil defense. FEMA was absorbed into DHS in 2003. As a result, FEMA became part of the Emergency Preparedness and Response Directorate of Department of Homeland Security, and employs more than 2,600 full time employees.
President Bush appointed [[Michael D. Brown]] as FEMA’s director in January 2003. Brown warned in September 2003 that FEMA's absorption into DHS would make a mockery of FEMA’s new motto, "A Nation Prepared", and would "fundamentally sever FEMA from its core functions", "shatter agency morale" and "break longstanding, effective and tested relationships with states and first responder stakeholders". The inevitable result of the reorganization of 2003, warned Brown, would be "an ineffective and uncoordinated response" to a terrorist attack or a natural disaster.<ref name="grunwald-2005-12-23">{{cite news
|first=Michael, and Susan B. Glasser
|last=Grunwald
|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/12/22/AR2005122202213.html
|title=Brown's Turf Wars Sapped FEMA's Strength
|work=Washington Post
|page=A01
|date=23 December 2005
|accessdate=2007-04-18
}}</ref>
[[Hurricane Katrina]] in 2005 demonstrated that the vision of further unification of functions and another reorganization could not address the problems FEMA had previously faced. The "Final Report of the Select Bipartisan Committee to Investigate the Preparation for and Response to [[Hurricane Katrina]]", released February 15, 2006 by the U.S. Government Printing Office, revealed that federal funding to states for “all hazards” disaster preparedness needs was not awarded unless the local agencies made the purposes for the funding a “just terrorism” function.<ref name="SenateBP">Senate Bipartisan Committee (15 February 2006), "The Final Report of the Select Bipartisan Committee to Investigate the Preparation for and Response to Hurricane Katrina, U.S. Government Printing Office: Washington D.C.</ref>
Emergency management professionals testified that funds for preparedness for natural hazards was given less priority than preparations for counter terrorism measures. Testimony also expressed the opinion that the mission to mitigate vulnerability and prepare for natural hazard disasters before they occurred had been separated from disaster preparedness functions, making the nation more vulnerable to known hazards, like hurricanes.<ref name="SenateBP-p208">Senate Bipartisan Committee, 2006, p. 208</ref>
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[[Categoria:Agências governamentais dos Estados Unidos]]
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