Sorghum: diferenças entre revisões
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{{em tradução|:en:Sorghum|data=fevereiro de 2012|língua=inglesa|tipo=artigo}}
{{Info/Taxonomia
|nome =Sorghum
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'''''Sorghum''''' ou '''sorgo'''<ref>[http://www.iniap.min-agricultura.pt/resultado_descritivo_2.aspx?id_publicacao=3614&uni=6 Some notes on sorghum. Its cultivation, breeding and baking-tests in Portugal. Estação Nacional de Melhoramento de Plantas]</ref> é um [[género (biologia)|género]] [[botânica|botânico]] pertencente à [[família (biologia)|família]] [[Poaceae]] de cerca de 20 espécies de gramíneas das regiões tropicais e sub-tropicais do oeste da África, com uma das espécies nativas do México. A planta é cultivada no sul da Europa, América Central e sul da Ásia. A designação noutros países inclui: Durra, Egyptian Millet, Feterita, Guinea Corn, Jowar, Juwar, Kaffircorn, Milo, Shallu e Sudan Grass.
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{{Referências}}
*{{citar livro|último=Watson|primeiro=Andrew M|título=Agricultural Innovation in the Early Islamic World|subtítulo=The Diffusion of Crops and Farming Techniques, 700–1100|local=Cambridge|editora=[[Cambridge University Press]]|ano=1983|língua3=en|isbn=0-521-24711-X}}
== Ligações externas ==
{{correlatos
| commons_cat = Sorghum
| wikispecies = Sorghum
| wiktionary = sorgo
}}
* [http://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/plants/johnsongrass.shtml Species Profile- Johnsongrass (''Sorghum halepense'')], National Invasive Species Information Center, [[United States National Agricultural Library]]. Lists general information and resources for Johnsongrass.
*[http://gisweb.ciat.cgiar.org/GapAnalysis/?p=277 Crop Wild Relatives Gap Analysis Portal] reliable information source on where and what to conserve ''ex-situ'', regarding ''Sorghum'' genepool
* [http://www.fao.org/docrep/T0818e/T0818E00.HTM FAO Report (1995) "Sorghum and millets in human nutrition"]
* [http://www.fao.org/inpho/content/compend/toc_main.htm#TopOfPage FAO "Compendium on post-harvest operations"]—Contains discussion on origin, processing and uses of sorghum
* [http://amarillo.tamu.edu/programs/irrigtce/publications/Grain%20Sorghum%20Irrigation%20B-6152.pdf Grain Sorghum Irrigation]
* [http://www.grains.org/page.ww?section=Barley%2C+Corn+%26+Sorghum&name=Sorghum Sorghum on US Grains Council Web Site]
* [http://www.sorghumgrowers.com National Grain Sorghum Producers]
* [http://www.ca.uky.edu/nssppa/production.html National Sweet Sorghum Producers and Processors Association]
* [http://www.grains.org/images/stories/technical_publications/Sorghum_Handbook.pdf Sorghum handbook], US Grain Council
* [http://weedsoft.unl.edu/documents/GrowthStagesModule/Sorghum/Sorg.htm Sorghum Growth Stages]
* [http://www.sseassociation.org/ Sweet Sorghum Ethanol Association], organization for the promotion and development of sweet ''Sorghum'' as a source for [[biofuel]]s, especially [[ethanol]]
* [http://www.uky.edu/Ag/GrainCrops/grain_sorghum.htm Milo, Grain Sorghum]
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<!--
{{taxobox
|image = Sorghum.jpg
|regnum = [[Plantae]]
|unranked_divisio = [[Angiosperms]]
|unranked_classis = [[Monocots]]
|unranked_ordo = [[Commelinids]]
|ordo = [[Poales]]
|familia = [[Poaceae]]
|subfamilia = [[Panicoideae]]
|tribus = [[Andropogoneae]]
|genus = '''''Sorghum'''''
|genus_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]]
|subdivision_ranks = Species
|subdivision = About 30 species, see text
|}}
'''''Sorghum''''' is a genus of numerous species of [[Poaceae|grasses]], one of which is raised for [[grain]] and many of which are used as [[fodder]] plants either cultivated or as part of pasture. The plants are cultivated in warmer climates worldwide. Species are native to tropical and subtropical regions of all continents in addition to the South West Pacific and [[Australasia]]. Sorghum is in the subfamily [[Panicoideae]] and the tribe [[Andropogoneae]] (the tribe of [[big bluestem]] and [[sugar cane]]).
Other names include Durra, Egyptian Millet, Feterita, Guinea Corn (Africa), Jwari, Jowar (India), Juwar, Milo (Spain), Kaolian (China), Shallu, Sudan Grass, Cholam, Jola, Jonnalu, Gaoliang, Great Millet, Kafir Corn (Africa), Dura, Dari, Mtama, and Solam.
For more specific details on commercially exploited sorghum, see commercial sorghum, also known as ''milo''.
Sorghum has been, for centuries, one of the most important [[staple food]]s for millions of poor rural people in the semi-arid tropics of Asia and Africa. For some impoverished regions of the world, sorghum remains a principal source of energy, protein, vitamins and minerals. Sorghum grows in harsh environments where other crops do not grow well, just like other staple foods, such as [[cassava]], that are common in impoverished regions of the world. It is usually grown without application of any fertilizers or other inputs by a multitude of small-holder farmers in many countries.<ref name=fao1>{{cite web|title=Sorghum and millet in human nutrition|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|date=1995|url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/T0818E/T0818E00.htm}}</ref>
Grain sorghum is the third most important cereal crop grown in the United States and the fifth most important cereal crop grown in the world. In 2010, Nigeria was the world's largest producer of grain sorghum followed by the United States and India. In developed countries, and increasingly in developing countries like India, predominant use of sorghum is as fodder for poultry and cattle.<ref>{{cite web|title=Industrial Utilization of Sorghum in India|publisher=ICRISAT, India|date=December 2007|url=http://www.icrisat.org/journal/mpii/v3i1/impi1.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Sorghum|publisher=United States Grain Council|date=November 2010|url=http://www.grains.org/sorghum}}</ref> Leading exporters in 2010 were the United States, Australia and Argentina; with Mexico as the largest importer of sorghum.
There is international effort to improve sorghum farming and to find additional applications of sorghum. Sorghum is now finding demand primarily as poultry feed, secondarily as cattle feed and in brewing applications.<ref>{{cite web|title=General Sorghum|date=2011|publisher=Agricultural Resource Marketing Center - partially funded by U.S. Department of Agriculture Rural Development Program|url=http://www.agmrc.org/commodities__products/grains__oilseeds/sorghum/general_sorghum.cfm}}</ref>
==Description==
Sorghum is a self-pollinating plant. It is more drought and temperature resistant than maize (corn), soybeans, wheat and other crops. The height of the plant depends on the breed and growing conditions, varying between 60 to 460 centimeters. The long, wide leaves grow off the stalk. Sorghum seed is small and round. A seed head is usually between 25 to 36 centimeters, present on the top of the stalk of a mature sorghum plant.<ref name=sorghum1>{{cite web|title=Sorghum Handbook|publisher=U.S. Grains Council|date=2005|url=http://www.agmrc.org/media/cms/Sorghum_Handbook_B5FE1C2B5DBCF.pdf}}</ref>
Sorghum seed consists of three major anatomic sections - pericarp (outer layer), endosperm (storage organ) and the germ. The pericarp is made of three segments - epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp. The epicarp is the outermost layer covered with a thin waxy film. The mesocarp consists of a large amount of starch granules. Sorghum is claimed to be the only food staple that contains starch in this anatomical section of the seed. Sorghum's endosperm is composed of aleurone layer, peripheral, corneous and floury areas. The aleurone contains proteins (protein bodies and enzymes), ash (phytin bodies) and oil (spherosomes). The germ has two major parts: the embryonic axis and embryonic disc. The protein of the germ contains high levels of lysine and tryptophan that are of unusually good quality for human consumption, as well as for fodder.
==History==
[[File:Sorghum field.png|thumb|A farm with traditional and hybrid varieties of Sorghum]]
Sorghum is native to the tropical areas in Africa. The oldest cultivation record dates back to 3000 B.C. in Egypt. The original variety of sorghum was purple or red and the seed coat was red.<ref name=sorghum1/>
In the 1950s hybrid sorghums were developed for higher yields and it became a popular crop as yields increased dramatically. The hybrid variety also offered a color and taste preferred by consumers. Sorghum grown in the United States is usually this hybrid variety, which is white sorghum with white seed coat, champagne colored body and wheat colored head. In other parts of the world, red or purple variety of low yield sorghum continues to be grown. Sorghum is now a globally important commercial crop.
==Cultivation and uses==
[[Image:2005sorghum.PNG|thumb|left|Sorghum output in 2005.]]
One species, ''[[Sorghum bicolor]]'',<ref>{{Cite journal
| doi = 10.1007/s10722-009-9466-7
| volume = 57
| issue = 2
| pages = 243–253
| last = Mutegi
| first = Evans
| coauthors = Fabrice Sagnard, Moses Muraya, Ben Kanyenji, Bernard Rono, Caroline Mwongera, Charles Marangu, Joseph Kamau, Heiko Parzies, Santie de Villiers, Kassa Semagn, Pierre Traoré, Maryke Labuschagne
| title = Ecogeographical distribution of wild, weedy and cultivated Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench in Kenya: implications for conservation and crop-to-wild gene flow
| journal = Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution
| accessdate = 2010-08-02
| date = 2010-02-01
}}</ref> is an important world crop, used for [[food]] (as grain and in [[Sweet sorghum|sorghum syrup or "sorghum molasses"]]), [[fodder]], the production of [[alcoholic beverage]]s, as well as biofuels. Most varieties are [[xerophyte|drought]] and heat tolerant, and are especially important in [[arid]] regions, where the grain is staple or one of the staples for poor and rural people. They form an important component of pastures in many tropical regions. Sorghum is an important [[food crop]] in [[Africa]], [[Central America]], and [[South Asia]] and is the "fifth most important [[cereal]] crop grown in the world".<ref>[http://www.grains.org/sorghum Sorghum], U.S. Grains Council.</ref>
Some species of sorghum can contain levels of [[hydrogen cyanide]], [[hordenine]] and nitrates lethal to grazing animals in the early stages of the plant's growth. Stressed plants, even at later stages of growth, can also contain toxic levels of cyanide.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}
Another ''Sorghum'' species, [[Johnson grass]] (''S. halapense''), is classified as an [[Invasive Species|invasive species]] in the US by the [[United States Department of Agriculture|Department of Agriculture]].<ref>[http://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/plants/johnsongrass.shtml Johnson Grass], U.S. Department of Agriculture, Accessed 2257 UDT, 12 March, 2009.</ref>
''Sorghum vulgare'' var. ''technicum'' is commonly called broomcorn.<ref>[http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/afcm/broomcorn.html Broomcorn], Alternative Field Crops Manual, Purdue University, Accessed 14 Mar 2011.</ref>
[[image:Sorghum_Field_El_Salvador_2011.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Sorghum field in Central America]]
===Production trends===
[[FAO]] reports that [[United States of America]] was the top producer of sorghum in 2009 with a 9.7 million metric tonnes harvest. The next four major producers of sorghum, in decreasing quantities were [[India]], [[Nigeria]], [[Sudan]] and [[Ethiopia]]. The other major sorghum producing regions in the world, by harvested quantities, were: Australia, Brazil, China, Burkina Faso, Argentina, Mali, Cameroon, Egypt, Niger, United Republic of Tanzania, Chad, Uganda, Mozambique, Venezuela, and Ghana.<ref>{{cite web|title=Agricultural Production, Worldwide, 2009|publisher=FAOSTAT, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|date=2010|url=http://faostat.fao.org/site/339/default.aspx}}</ref>
The world harvested 55.6 million tonnes of sorghum in 2010. The world average annual yield for the 2010 sorghum crop was 1.37 tonnes per hectare. The most productive farms of sorghum were in [[Jordan]], where the nationwide average annual yield was 12.7 tonnes per hectare. The nationwide annual average yield in world's largest producing country, the USA, was 4.5 tonnes per hectare.<ref>{{cite web|title=Crop Production, Worldwide, 2010 data|publisher=FAOSTAT, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|date=2011|url=http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=567#ancor}}</ref>
The allocation of farm area to sorghum crop has been dropping, while the yields per hectare has been increasing. The biggest sorghum crop the world produced in the last 40 years was in 1985, with a 77.6 million tonnes harvest that year.
===Nutritional profile of sorghum===
Sorghum is about 70 percent starch and a good energy source. Sorghum starch consists of 70 to 80 percent [[amylopectin]], a branched-chain polymer of glucose, and 20 to 30 percent [[amylose]], a straight-chain polymer.
The digestibility of the sorghum starch is relatively poor in unprocessed form, varying between 33 to 48 percent. Processing of the sorghum grain by methods such as steaming, pressure-cooking, flaking, puffing or micronization of the starch increases the digestibility of sorghum starch. This has been attributed to a release of starch granules from the protein matrix rendering them more susceptible to enzymatic digestion.
On cooking, the gelatinized starch of sorghum tends to return from the soluble, dispersed and amorphous state to an insoluble crystalline state. This phenomenon is known as [[retrogradation]]; it is enhanced with low temperature and high concentration of starch. Amylose, the linear component of the starch, is more susceptible to retrogradation.
Certain sorghum varieties contain anti-nutritional factors such as [[tannin]]s. The presence of tannins is claimed to contribute to the poor digestibility of sorghum starch. Processing in humid thermal environment aids in lowering anti-nutritional factors of sorghum.
Sorghum starch does not contain gluten. This makes sorghum a possible grain for those who are gluten sensitive.<ref name=sorghum1/>
After starch, proteins are the main constituent of sorghum. The essential amino acid profile of sorghum protein is claimed to depend on the sorghum variety, soil and growing conditions. A wide variation has been reported. For example, lysine content in sorghum has been reported to vary from 71 to 212 mg per gram of nitrogen.<ref name=fao1/> Some studies on sorghum's amino acid composition suggest albumin and globulin fractions contained high amounts of Iysine and tryptophan and in general were well balanced in their essential amino acid composition. On the other hand, some studies claim sorghum's prolamin fraction was extremely poor in Iysine, arginine, histidine and tryptophan and contained high amounts of proline, glutamic acid and leucine. These variations may be linked to the sorghum variety, soil and growing conditions. The digestibility of sorghum protein has also been found to vary between different varieties and source of sorghum. Digestibility values ranging from 30 to 70 percent have been reported.
A World Health Organization report suggests that the inherent capacity of the existing sorghum varieties commonly consumed in poor countries was not adequate to meet the growth requirements of infants and young children. The report also claims that sorghum alone may not be able to meet the healthy maintenance requirements in adults. A balanced diet would supplement sorghum with other food staples.
Sorghum's nutritional profile includes several minerals. This mineral matter is unevenly distributed and is more concentrated in the germ and the seed-coat. In milled sorghum flours, minerals such as phosphorus, iron, zinc and copper decreased with lower extraction rates. Similarly, pearling the grain to remove the fibrous seed-coat resulted in considerable reduction in the mineral contents of sorghum. The presence of anti-nutrition factors such as tannins in sorghum reduces its mineral availability as food. It is important to process and prepare sorghum properly to improve sorghum's nutrition value.
Sorghum is a good source of B-complex vitamins. Some varieties of sorghum contain ß-carotene which can be converted to vitamin A by the human body; given the photosensitive nature of carotenes and variability due to environmental factors, scientists claim sorghum is likely to be of little importance as a dietary source of vitamin A precursor. Some fat-soluble vitamins, namely D, E and K, have also been found in sorghum grain in detectable but insufficient quantities. Sorghum as it is generally consumed is not a source of vitamin C.
===Comparison of sorghum to other major staple foods ===
The following table shows the nutrient content of sorghum and compares it to major staple foods in a raw form. Raw forms of these staples, however, aren't edible and can not be digested. These must be prepared and cooked as appropriate for human consumption. In post-processed and cooked form, the relative nutritional and anti-nutritional contents of each of these grains is remarkably different from that of raw form of these grains reported in this table. The nutrition value for each staple food in cooked form depends on the cooking method (for example: boiling, baking, steaming, frying, etc.).
{{Template:Comparison of major staple foods}}
== Species ==
{{Div col|2}}
* ''[[Sorghum almum]]''
* ''[[Sorghum amplum]]''
* ''[[Sorghum angustum]]''
* ''[[Sorghum arundinaceum]]''
* ''[[Sorghum bicolor]]'' — Cultivated sorghum, often individually called sorghum
** [[Sorghum bicolor subsp. drummondii|''Sorghum bicolor'' subsp. ''drummondii'']] — Sudan grass
* ''[[Sorghum brachypodum]]''
* ''[[Sorghum bulbosum]]''
* ''[[Sorghum burmahicum]]''
* ''[[Sorghum ecarinatum]]''
* ''[[Sorghum exstans]]''
* ''[[Sorghum grande]]''
* ''[[Johnson grass|Sorghum halepense]]'' — Johnson grass
* ''[[Sorghum interjectum]]''
* ''[[Sorghum intrans]]''
* ''[[Sorghum laxiflorum]]''
* ''[[Sorghum leiocladum]]''
* ''[[Sorghum macrospermum]]''
* ''[[Sorghum matarankense]]''
* ''[[Sorghum nitidum]]''
* ''[[Sorghum plumosum]]''
* ''[[Sorghum propinquum]]''
* ''[[Sorghum purpureosericeum]]''
* ''[[Sorghum stipoideum]]''
* ''[[Sorghum timorense]]''
* ''[[Sorghum trichocladum]]''
* ''[[Sorghum versicolor]]''
* ''[[Sorghum verticiliflorum]]''
* ''[[Sorghum vulgare var. technicum]]'' — Broomcorn
{{Div col end}}
== Hybrids ==
*''Sorghum × almum''
*''Sorghum × drummondii''
== Sorghum genome ==
In 2009, a team of international researchers announced they had sequenced the sorghum genome.<ref>[http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2009-01/ru-sos012609.php Sequencing of sorghum genome completed] EurekAlert, January 28, 2010, Retrieved August 30, 2010</ref><ref>{{cite doi|10.1038/nature07723}}</ref>
== See also ==
* [[Baijiu]] alcoholic beverage distilled from sorghum
* [[Push–pull technology]] pest control strategy for maize and sorghum
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