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{{Sem-fontes|data=junho de 2011| angola=| arte=| Brasil=| ciência=| geografia=| música=| Portugal=| sociedade=|1=|2=|3=|4=|5=|6=}}
A camada de rede é a tua ma de 4
[[File:Modelo OSI - Camada de Rede.png|thumb||http://espiral.me/category/redes-de-computadores-2/modelo-osi-redes-de-computadores-2/ Vídeo explicativo sobre a Camada de Rede]]]
{{ModeloOSI}}
A '''camada de rede''' do modelo OSI é responsável por controlar a operação da rede de um modo geral. Suas principais funções são o roteamento dos pacotes entre fonte e destino, mesmo que estes tenham que passar por diversos nós intermediários durante o percurso, o controle de congestionamento e a contabilização do número de pacotes ou bytes utilizados pelo usuário, para fins de tarifação.
 
O principal aspecto que deve ser observado nessa camada é a execução do roteamento dos pacotes entre fonte e destino, principalmente quando existem caminhos diferentes para conectar entre si dois nós da rede. Em redes de longa distância é comum que a mensagem chegue do nó fonte ao nó destino passando por diversos nós intermediários no meio do caminho e é tarefa do nível de rede escolher o melhor caminho para essa mensagem.
cala a boca nelson
 
A escolha da melhor rota pode ser baseada em tabelas estáticas, que são configuradas na criação da rede e são raramente modificadas; pode também ser determinada no início de cada conversação, ou ser altamente dinâmica, sendo determinada a cada novo pacote, a fim de refletir exatamente a carga da rede naquele instante. Se muitos pacotes estão sendo transmitidos através dos mesmos caminhos, eles vão diminuir o desempenho global da rede, formando gargalos. O controle de tais congestionamentos também é tarefa da camada de rede.
'''Portugal''' (<small>UK</small> /ˈpɔːtʃʊɡl/; <small>US</small> <sup>i</sup>/ˈpɔrtʃʉɡəl/; Portuguese: <span lang="pt">''Portugal''</span> [puɾtuˈɣaɫ]; Mirandese: <span lang="mwl">''Pertual''</span>), officially the'''Portuguese Republic''' (Portuguese: <span lang="pt">''República Portuguesa''</span>; Mirandese: <span lang="mwl">''República Pertuesa''</span>), is a country in southwest Europe. It is located on the Iberian Peninsula, and it is the westernmost country of mainland Europe, being bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the west and south and by Spain to the north and east. Aside fromcontinental Portugal, the Portuguese Republic holds sovereignty over the Atlantic archipelagos of Azores andMadeira, which are autonomous regions of Portugal. The country is named after its second largest city, Porto, whose name derives from a combination of Latin ''"Portus"'', and the Celtic place-name ''"Cale"''.<sup>[8]</sup>
 
As funções exercidas na camada de rede do modelo OSI estão listados abaixo:
<nowiki> </nowiki>The land within the borders of the current Portuguese Republic has been continually fought over and settled sinceprehistoric times. The Celts and the Romans were followed by the Visigothic and the Suebi Germanic peoples, who were themselves later invaded by the Moors. These Muslim peoples were eventually expelled during the Christian ''Reconquista'' of the peninsula. By 1139, Portugal established itself as a kingdom independent fromLeón.<sup>[9]</sup> In the 15th and 16th centuries, as the result of pioneering the Age of Discovery, Portugal expandedwestern influence and established the first global empire,<sup>[10][11][12]</sup> becoming one of the world's major economic, political and military powers.
 
* Tráfego direção ao destino final
The Portuguese Empire was the longest-lived of the modern European colonial empires, spanning almost 600 years, from the capture of Ceuta in 1415 to the handover of Macau to the People's Republic of China in 1999 (''de facto'') or the granting of sovereignty to East Timor in 2002 (''de jure'') after occupation by Indonesia since 1975. The empire spread throughout a vast number of territories that are now part of 53 different sovereign states, leaving a profound cultural and architectural influence across the globe with a legacy of over 250 million Portuguese speakers today (making it the sixth most spoken first language) and a number of Portuguese-based creoles. Portugal's international status was greatly reduced during the 19th century, especially following the Independenceof Brazil. After the 1910 revolution deposed the monarchy, the democratic but unstable Portuguese First Republicwas established, itself being superseded by the "Estado Novo" right-wing authoritarian regime. Democracy was restored after the Portuguese Colonial War and the Carnation Revolution in 1974. Shortly after, independence was granted to Angola, Mozambique, São Tomé and Príncipe, East Timor, Cape Verde and Guinea-Bissau.
* Dirigindo; lógico endereços de rede e serviços endereços
* Encaminhamento de funções; descoberta e seleção de rotas
* Comutação de pacotes
* Controle de sequencia de pacotes
* Detecção de erro ''End-to-end'' dos dados (a partir do emissor para o receptor de dados).
* Controle de congestionamento
* Controle de fluxo
* Portal de serviços
 
É a camada responsável por encaminhar os dados entre diversos endereços de [[rede de computadores|redes]], como se fosse uma central de correios, fazendo com que os dados cheguem a seu destino.
Portugal maintains a unitary semi-presidential republic form of government<sup>[13][14][15][16]</sup> and a developed countrywith an advanced economy, high living standards<sup>[17][18][19]</sup> and high-quality infrastructures, ranking 2nd in the quality of the road network<sup>[20]</sup> and 11th overall,<sup>[21]</sup> according to the Global Competitiveness Report. It is one of the world's most globalized, peaceful and responsive nations.<sup>[22][23]</sup> It is a member of the United Nations, European Union, Eurozone, OECD, NATO, WTO, OSCE, Schengen Area, Council of Europe, Organization of Ibero-American States, Community of Portuguese Language Countries and numerous other international institutions. Portugal was among the first countries to abolish capital punishment, in 1867. On 31 May 2010, Portugal became the sixth country in Europe and the eighth country in the world to legally recognize same-sex marriage on the national level.<sup>[24]</sup> Portugal also received international attention for being the first country in the world to fully decriminalize the usage of all drugs in 2001.<sup>[25]</sup>
 
== ContentsProtocolos ==
'''[[IP]] “Internet Protocol” –''' Recebe segmentos de dados da camada de transporte e os encapsula em datagramas, é um protocolo não confiável por não exigir confirmação.
 [hide] 
* 1 History
** 1.1 Early history: Iberians and Celts
** 1.2 Roman Lusitania and Gallaecia
** 1.3 Suebi and Visigoths
** 1.4 Moorish Iberia
** 1.5 Reconquista
** 1.6 Joanine era
** 1.7 Iberian Union and Restoration
** 1.8 Early Brigantine and Pombaline era
** 1.9 National and Imperial change
** 1.10 Colonial restoration
** 1.11 Republic and turmoil
** 1.12 Revolution and imperial end
** 1.13 European integration
* 2 Geography
** 2.1 Climate
** 2.2 Biodiversity
* 3 Government
** 3.1 Executive branch
** 3.2 Legislative branch
** 3.3 Law and criminal justice
** 3.4 Administrative divisions
** 3.5 Foreign relations
** 3.6 Military
** 3.7 Government finance
* 4 Economy
** 4.1 Sectors
*** 4.1.1 Primary sector
*** 4.1.2 Secondary sector
*** 4.1.3 Tertiary sector
** 4.2 State-owned companies
** 4.3 Listed companies
** 4.4 Performance
*** 4.4.1 Public sector
*** 4.4.2 Ongoing policies, reactions and consequences
** 4.5 Labour market
** 4.6 Tourism
*** 4.6.1 Tourist regions
** 4.7 Transport
** 4.8 Science and technology
** 4.9 Energy
* 5 Demographics
** 5.1 Urbanization
** 5.2 Metropolitan areas
** 5.3 Immigration
** 5.4 Religion
** 5.5 Languages
** 5.6 Education
** 5.7 Health
* 6 Culture
** 6.1 Architecture
** 6.2 Cinema
** 6.3 Literature
** 6.4 Cuisine
** 6.5 Music
** 6.6 Visual arts
** 6.7 Sport
* 7 See also
* 8 References
* 9 External links
 
'''[[ICMP]] “Internet Control Message Protocol” –''' É um padrão TCP/IP necessário, são documentos regidos IETF que estabelecem os padrões de cada protocolo com o ICMP os hosts e roteadores que usam comunicação IP podem relatar erros e trocar informações de status e controle limitado.
== History[edit] ==
Main article: History of Portugal
 
'''[[ARP]] “Address Resolution Protocol” -''' Permite certo computador se comunicar com outro computador em rede quando somente o endereço de IP é conhecido pelo destinatário.
=== Early history: Iberians and Celts[edit] ===
Main articles: Lusitania and Kingdom of the Suebi
 
'''[[RARP]] “Reverse Address Resolution Protocol” –''' Faz o contrario do protocolo ARP, ao invés de obter o informações como o MAC e o IP de máquinas remotas, o protocolo RARP requisita informações para a propria maquina. Foi substituido pelo [[DHCP]] e pelo [[BOOTP]].
Citânia de Briteiros, in the Minho Province, is the best preserved Iron Ageand Castro culture site in Portugal.
 
'''[[IGMP]] “Internet Group Management Protocol” –''' É usado por hosts para reportar seus participantes de grupos de hosts a roteadores multicast vizinhos, é um protocolo assimétrico.
The pre-Roman tribes of ancient Portugal and their expansion patterns.
 
== {{Ligações externas}} ==
The early history of Portugal is shared with the rest of the Iberian Peninsula located in South Western Europe. The name of Portugal derives from the combined Romano-Celtic name Portus Cale. The region was settled by Pre-Celts and Celts, giving origin to peoples like the Gallaeci, Lusitanians, Celtici and Cynetes, visited by Phoenicians and Carthaginians, incorporated in the Roman Republic dominions as Lusitania and part of Gallaecia, after 45 BC until 298 AD, settled again by Suebi, Buri, and Visigoths, and conquered by Moors. Other influences include some 5th century vestiges of Alan settlement, which were found in Alenquer (old Germanic "Alankerk" ), Coimbra and Lisbon.<sup>[26]</sup>
 
The region of present-day Portugal was inhabited by Neanderthals and then by Homo sapiens, who roamed the border-less region of the northern Iberian peninsula.<sup>[27]</sup> These were subsistence societies that, although they did not establish prosperous settlements, did establish organized societies. Neolithic Portugal experimented with domestication of herding animals, the raising of some cereal crops and fluvial or marine fishing.<sup>[27]</sup>
 
It is believed by some scholars that early in the first millennium BC, several waves of Celts invaded Portugal from Central Europe and inter-married with the local populations, forming different ethnic groups, with many tribes.
* Archaeological artifact from the work developed in the area of Citânia de Briteiros 
* Cross or ''cruzado'' in Citânia de Briteiros 
* Informative plaque of the proto-historic settlement of Citânia de Briteiros 
* Another artifact from Citânia de Briteiros 
* A ''pedra formosa'' in the same location
Chief among these tribes were the Calaicians or Gallaeci of Northern Portugal, the Lusitanians of central Portugal, the Celtici of Alentejo, and the Cynetes or Conii of the Algarve. Among the lesser tribes or sub-divisions were the Bracari, Coelerni, Equaesi,Grovii, Interamici, Leuni, Luanqui, Limici, Narbasi, Nemetati, Paesuri, Quaquerni, Seurbi, Tamagani, Tapoli, Turduli, Turduli Veteres,Turdulorum Oppida, Turodi, and Zoelae.
 
There were in the southern part of the country some small, semi-permanent commercial coastal settlements founded byPhoenicians-Carthaginians (such as Tavira, in the Algarve).
 
=== Roman Lusitania and Gallaecia[edit] ===
Main articles: Lusitania, Gallaecia and Hispania
 
Romans first invaded the Iberian Peninsula in 219 BC. By 19 BC, almost the entire peninsula had been annexed to the Roman Republic. The Carthaginians, Rome's adversary in the Punic Wars, were expelled from their coastal colonies.
 
The Roman conquest of what is now part of modern day Portugal took almost two hundred years and took many lives of young soldiers and the lives of those who were sentenced to a certain death in the slavery mines when not sold as slaves to other parts of the empire. It suffered a severe setback in 150 BC, when a rebellion began in the north. The Lusitanians and other native tribes, under the leadership of Viriathus, wrested control of all of western Iberia.
 
Rome sent numerous legions and its best generals to Lusitania to quell the rebellion, but to no avail — the Lusitanians kept conquering territory. The Roman leaders decided to change their strategy. They bribed Viriathus's allies to kill him. In 139 BC, Viriathus was assassinated, and Tautalus became leader.
 
The Roman Temple of Évora, in theAlentejo, is a symbol of Lusitania, Roman rule in Portugal.
 
Rome installed a colonial regime. The complete Romanization of Lusitania only took place in the Visigothic era.
* Conímbriga ''house of fountains'' 
* Conímbriga column 
* Silver jar found in Conímbriga 
* Detail of a paved floor in Conímbriga showing aminotaur 
* A paved road in Conímbriga
In 27 BC, Lusitania gained the status of Roman province. Later, a northern province of Lusitania was formed, known as Gallaecia, with capital in Bracara Augusta, today's Braga. There are still many ruins of castros (hill forts) all over modern Portugal and remains of Castro culture. Numerous Roman sites are scattered around present-day Portugal, some urban remains are quite large, like Conímbriga and Mirobriga. The former, beyond being one of the largest Roman settlements in Portugal, is also classified as a National Monument. Conímbriga lies 16 km from Coimbra which by its turn was the ancient ''Aeminium''). The site also has a museum that displays objects found by archaeologists during their excavations.
 
Several works of engineering, such as baths, temples, bridges, roads, circus, theatres and layman's homes are preserved throughout the country. Coins, some of which coined in Lusitanian land, as well as numerous pieces of ceramics were also found. Contemporary historians include Paulus Orosius (c. 375–418)<sup>[28]</sup> andHydatius (c. 400–469), bishop of Aquae Flaviae, who reported on the final years of the Roman rule and arrival of the Germanic tribes.
 
=== Suebi and Visigoths[edit] ===
The Suebi Kingdom in Green and the Visigothic one in Orange
 
Visigothic Hispania and its regional divisions in 700, prior to the Muslim conquest.
 
In the early 5th century, Germanic tribes, namely the Suebi and the Vandals (Silingiand Hasdingi) together with their allies, the Sarmatians and Alans invaded theIberian Peninsula where they would form their kingdom. The Kingdom of the Suebiwas the Germanic post-Roman kingdom, established in the former Roman provinces of Gallaecia-Lusitania.
 
About 410 and during the 6th century it became a formally declared kingdom, where king Hermeric made a peace treaty with the Gallaecians before passing his domains to Rechila, his son. In 448 Réchila died, leaving the state in expansion to Rechiar.
 
In the year 500, the Visigothic Kingdom was installed in Iberia, centred on Toledo. The Visigoths eventually conquered the Suebi and its capital city Bracara (modern day Portugal's Braga) in 584–585. It maintained its independence until 585, when it was annexed by the Visigoths, and turned into the sixth province of the Visigothic Kingdom of Hispania.
 
For the next 300 years and by the year 700, the entire Iberian Peninsula was ruled by Visigoths, having survived until 711, when King Roderic (Rodrigo) was killed while opposing an invasion from the south by the Umayyad Muslims.
 
=== Moorish Iberia[edit] ===
The province of al-Andalus as part of the Umayyad Caliphate 720 AD
 
The Age of the Caliphs
 
Muhammad, 622–632
 
Patriarchal Caliphate, 632–661
 
Umayyad Caliphate, 661–750
 
The Caliphate of Cordoba c. 1000 at the apogee of Al-Mansur.
 
Today's modern day continental Portugal, along with a significant part of Spain, was part of the Umayyad Caliphate for approximately five centuries (711 AD - 1249 AD), following the Umayyad Caliphate conquest of the Iberian Peninsula in 711 AD.
 
After defeating the Visigoths in only a few months, the Umayyad Caliphate started expanding rapidly in the peninsula. Beginning in 711, the land that is now Portugal became part of the vast Umayyad Caliphate's empire of Damascus. which stretched from the Indus river in Pakistan up to the South of France, until its collapse in 750, a year in which the west of the empire gained its independence under Abd-ar-Rahman I with the creation of the Emirate of Córdoba. After almost two centuries, the Emirate became the Caliphate of Córdoba in 929, until its dissolution a century later in 1031 into no less than 23 small kingdoms, called Taifa kingdoms.
 
The governors of the taifas each proclaimed themselves Emir of their provinces and established diplomatic relations with the Christian kingdoms of the north. Most of Portugal fell into the hands of the Taifa of Badajoz of the Aftasid Dynasty, and after a short spell of an ephemeral Taifa of Lisbon in 1022, fell under the dominion of the Taifa of Seville of the Abbadids poets. The Taifa period ended with the conquest of the Almoravids who came from Morocco in 1086 winning a decisive victory at the Battle of Sagrajas, followed a century later in 1147, after the second period of Taifa, by the Almohads, also fromMarrakesh.<sup>[29]</sup>
 
Al-Andalus was divided into different districts called ''Kura''. Gharb Al-Andalus at its largest was constituted of ten kuras,<sup>[30]</sup>each with a distinct capital and governor. The main cities of the period in Portugal were Beja, Silves, Alcácer do Sal,Santarém and Lisbon.
 
The Muslim population of the region consisted mainly of native Iberian converts to Islam (the so-called ''Muwallad'' or ''Muladi'') and to a lesser extent Berbers and Arabs.<sup>[''citation needed'']</sup> The Arabs were principally noblemen from Oman; and though few in numbers, they constituted the elite of the population. The Berbers were originally from the Atlas mountains and Rif mountains of North Africa and were essentially nomads. In Portugal, the Muslim population (or "Moors"), relatively small in numbers,<sup>[31]</sup> stayed in the Algarve region, and south of the Tagus.<sup>[31]</sup> Today, there are approximately 800 words in the Portuguese language of Arabic origin. The Muslims were expelled from Portugal 300 years earlier than in neighbouring Spain, which is reflected both in Portuguese culture and the language, which is mostlyCeltiberian and Vulgar Latin.
 
=== Reconquista[edit] ===
Main articles: History of Portugal (1139–1279) and History of Portugal (1279–1415)
 
Monument to Don Pelayos atCovadonga where he won the Battle of Covadonga and initiated the IberianChristian Reconquista of the Peninsula from the Islamic Moors
 
Celebrations of the Battle of São Mamede, the seminal event for an independent Portugal, in the Castle of Guimarães
 
The Battle of Ourique, a major stepping stone in the Portuguese Reconquista
 
John I of Portugal arguably laid the pathway to Portugal becoming a global power
 
An Asturian Visigothic noble named Pelayos or Pelagius in 718 AD was elected leader by many of the ousted Visigothnobles. Don Pelayos called for the remnant of the Christian Visigothic armies to rebel against the Moors and regroup in the unconquered northern Asturian highlands, better known today as the Cantabrian Mountains, in what is today the small mountain region in North-western Spain, adjacent to the Bay of Biscay.<sup>[32]</sup>
 
Don Pelayos' plan was to use the Cantabrian mountains as a place of refuge and protection from the invading Moors. He then aimed to regroup the Iberian Peninsula's Christian armies and use the Cantabrian mountains as a springboard from which to regain their lands from the Moors. In the process, after defeating the Moors in the Battle of Covadonga in 722 AD, Pelayos was proclaimed king, thus founding the Christian Kingdom of Asturias and starting the war of reconquest known inPortuguese (and Spanish) as the ''Reconquista''.<sup>[32]</sup>
 
At the end of the ninth century, the region of Portugal, between the Rivers Minho and Douro, was freed or reconquered from the Moors by Don Vimara Peres on the orders of King Alfonso III of Asturias. Finding that the region had previously had two major cities -Portus Cale in the coast and Braga in the interior, with many towns that were now deserted, he decided to repopulate and rebuild them with Portuguese and Galician refugees and other Christians.<sup>[33]</sup>
 
Thus, it was very easy for Don Vimara Peres to organize the region and elevate it to the status of County. Don Vimara Peres named the region he freed from the Moors, the County of Portugal after the region's major port city - ''Portus Cale'' modernOporto. One of the first cities Don Vimara Peres founded at this time is Vimaranes, known today as Guimarães - the "birthplace of the Portuguese nation" or the "cradle city" (Cidade Berço in Portuguese).<sup>[33]</sup>
 
After annexing the County of Portugal into one of the several counties that made up the Kingdom of Asturias, King Alfonso III of Asturias knighted Don Vimara Peres, in 868 AD, as the First Count of Portus Cale (Portugal). The region became known as ''Portucale'', ''Portugale'', and simultaneously ''Portugália'' — the County of Portugal.<sup>[33]</sup>
; Counts of the First County of Portugal
* Vímara Peres (868–873)
* Lucídio Vimaranes (873–???)
* Hermengildo Gonçalves (c.924–c.950)
* Mumadona Dias (c.924–c.950)
* Gonçalo Mendes (c.950–997), self-styled "Grand Duke of Portugal"
* Mendo Gonçalves (997–1008)
* Alvito Nunes (1008–1015)
* Nuno Alvites (1017–1028)
* Ilduara Mendes (1017–1028, as regent for son)
* Mendo Nunes (1028–1050)
* Nuno Mendes (1050–1071)
; Counts of the Second County of Portugal
* Henry (1096–1112)
* Theresa (1112–1128, ruling as regent for son). Recognized as "Queen of Portugal" in 1116 by Pope Paschal II, but forced to renounce the claimed independence in 1121, although she would continue to be styled 'Queen' in later documents.
* Afonso (1112–1143), ''"The Founder"'', self-styled Duke of Portugal. Proclaimed king in 1139, and recognized as independent by the Kingdom of León in 1143. Portugal was acknowledged as an independent kingdom by Pope Alexander III in 1179.
During the Reconquista period, Christians reconquered the Iberian Peninsula from Moorish domination. A victory over the Muslims at the Battle of Ourique in 1139 is traditionally taken as the occasion when the County of Portugal as a fief of theKingdom of León was transformed into the independent Kingdom of Portugal.
 
Henry, to whom the newly formed county was awarded by Alfonso VI for his role in reconquering the land, based his newly formed county in Bracara Augusta (nowadays Braga), capital city of the ancient Roman province, and also previous capital of several kingdoms over the first millennia.
 
On 24 June 1128, the Battle of São Mamede occurred near Guimarães. Afonso Henriques, Count of Portugal, defeated his motherCountess Teresa and her lover Fernão Peres de Trava, thereby establishing himself as sole leader. Afonso then turned his arms against the Moors in the south. His campaigns were successful and, on 25 July 1139, he obtained an overwhelming victory in theBattle of Ourique, and straight after was unanimously proclaimed King of Portugal by his soldiers.
 
Afonso then established the first of the Portuguese Cortes at Lamego, where he was crowned by the Archbishop of Braga, though the validity of the Cortes of Lamego has been disputed and called a myth created during the Portuguese Restoration War. Afonso was recognized in 1143 by King Alfonso VII of León and Castile, and in 1179 by Pope Alexander III.
 
Afonso Henriques and his successors, aided by military monastic orders, pushed southward to drive out the Moors. At this time Portugal covered about half of its present area. In 1249, the Reconquista ended with the capture of the Algarve and complete expulsion of the last Moorish settlements on the southern coast, giving Portugal its present-day borders, with minor exceptions.
 
The reigns of Dinis I, Afonso IV, and Pedro I for the most part saw peace with the Christian kingdoms of Iberia, and thus the Portuguese kingdom advanced in prosperity and culture.
 
In 1348 and 1349 Portugal, like the rest of Europe, was devastated by the Black Death.<sup>[34]</sup> In 1373, Portugal made an alliance with England, which is the longest-standing alliance in the world. This alliance served both nations' interests throughout history and is regarded by many as the predecessor to NATO. Over time this went way beyond geo-political and military cooperation (protecting both nations' interests in Africa, the Americas and Asia against French, Spanish and Dutch rivals) and maintained strong trade and cultural ties between the two old European allies. Particularly in the Oporto region, there is visible English influence to this day.
 
In 1383, John I of Castile, husband of Beatrice of Portugal and son-in-law of Ferdinand I of Portugal, claimed the throne of Portugal. A faction of petty noblemen and commoners, led by John of Aviz (later King John I of Portugal) and commanded by General Nuno Álvares Pereira defeated the Castilians in the Battle of Aljubarrota. With this battle, the House of Aviz became the ruling house of Portugal.
 
=== Joanine era[edit] ===
Main article: History of Portugal (1415–1578)
 
Portugal spearheaded European exploration of the world and the Age of Discovery. Prince Henry the Navigator, son of King João I, became the main sponsor and patron of this endeavour. During this period, Portugal explored the Atlantic Ocean, discovering several Atlantic archipelagos like the Azores, Madeira, and Cape Verde, explored the African coast, colonized selected areas of Africa, discovered an eastern route to India via the Cape of Good Hope, discovered Brazil, explored the Indian Ocean, established trading routes throughout most of southern Asia, and sent the first direct European maritime trade and diplomatic missions to Chinaand Japan.
 
Vasco da Gama opened Portugal to the East and gave way for its monopoly there.
 
In 1415, Portugal acquired the first of its overseas colonies by conquering Ceuta, the first prosperous Islamic trade centre in North Africa. There followed the first discoveries in the Atlantic: Madeira and the Azores, which led to the first colonization movements.
 
Throughout the 15th century, Portuguese explorers sailed the coast of Africa, establishing trading posts for several common types of tradable commodities at the time, ranging from gold to slaves, as they looked for a route to India and its spices, which were coveted in Europe.
 
Padrão dos Descobrimentos. The Portuguese Empire was the first and longest global empire in history, spanning almost 600 years
 
The Treaty of Tordesillas, intended to resolve the dispute that had been created following the return of Christopher Columbus, was signed on 7 June 1494, and divided the newly discovered lands outside Europe between Portugal and Spain along a meridian 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde islands (off the west coast of Africa).
 
In 1498, Vasco da Gama reached India and brought economic prosperity to Portugal and its population of 1.7 million residents, helping to start thePortuguese Renaissance. In 1500, the Portuguese explorer Gaspar Corte-Realreached what is now Canada and founded the town of Portugal Cove-St. Philip's,Newfoundland and Labrador, long before the French and English in the 17th century, and being just one of many Portuguese Colonizations of the Americas.<sup>[35][36][37]</sup>
 
In 1500, Pedro Álvares Cabral discovered Brazil and claimed it for Portugal.<sup>[38]</sup> Ten years later, Afonso de Albuquerque conquered Goa in India, Ormuz in the Persian Strait, and Malacca, now a state in Malaysia. Thus, the Portuguese empire held dominion over commerce in the Indian Ocean and South Atlantic. Portuguese sailors set out to reach Eastern Asia by sailing eastward from Europe, landing in such places as Taiwan, Japan, and the island of Timor.
 
Although for a long period it was believed the Dutch were the first Europeans to arrive in Australia, very strong evidence points to the Portuguese discovery of Australia,<sup>[39][40][41]</sup> in 1521.
 
The Treaty of Zaragoza, signed on 22 April 1529 between Portugal and Spain, specified the anti-meridian to the line of demarcation specified in the Treaty of Tordesillas.
 
All these factors made Portugal the world's major economic, military, and political power from the 15th century until the late 16th century.
 
=== Iberian Union and Restoration[edit] ===
Main articles: Iberian Union and Portuguese Restoration War
 
John IV of Braganza waged thePortuguese Restoration War and restored home-rule to Portugal as King John IV.
 
Portugal's sovereignty was interrupted between 1580 and 1640. This occurred because the last two kings of the House of Aviz – King Sebastian, who died in the battle of Alcácer Quibir in Morocco, and his great-uncle and successor, King Henry of Portugal – both died without heirs, resulting in the Portuguese succession crisis of 1580.
 
Subsequently, Philip II of Spain claimed the throne and so became Philip I of Portugal. Although Portugal did not lose its formal independence, it was governed by the same monarch who governed the Spanish Empire,<sup>[42]</sup> briefly forming a unionof kingdoms. At this time Spain was a geographic territory.<sup>[43]</sup> The joining of the two crowns deprived Portugal of an independent foreign policy and led to its involvement in the Eighty Years' War between Spain and the Netherlands.
 
War led to a deterioration of the relations with Portugal's oldest ally, England, and the loss of Hormuz, a strategic trading post located between Iran and Oman. From 1595 to 1663 the Dutch-Portuguese War primarily involved the Dutch companies invading many Portuguese colonies and commercial interests in Brazil, Africa, India and the Far East, resulting in the loss of the Portuguese Indian Sea trade monopoly.
 
In 1640, John IV spearheaded an uprising backed by disgruntled nobles and was proclaimed king. The Portuguese Restoration War between Portugal and the Spanish Empire, in the aftermath of the 1640 revolt, ended the sixty-year period of the Iberian Union under the House of Habsburg. This was the beginning of the House of Braganza, which reigned in Portugal until 1910.
 
Official estimates – and most estimates made so far – place the number of Portuguese migrants to Colonial Brazil during the gold rush of the 18th century at 600,000.<sup>[44]</sup> This represented one of the largest movements of European populations to their colonies in the Americas during colonial times.
 
=== Early Brigantine and Pombaline era[edit] ===
Main article: History of Portugal (1640–1777)
 
Sebastião José, Marquis of Pombal, revolutionized and enlightened Portugal.
 
In 1738, Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal, began a diplomatic career as the PortugueseAmbassador in London and later in Vienna. The Queen consort of Portugal, Archduchess Maria Anne Josefa of Austria, was fond of Melo; and after his first wife died, she arranged the widowed de Melo's second marriage to the daughter of the Austrian Field Marshal Leopold Josef, Count von Daun. King John V of Portugal, however, was not pleased and recalled Melo to Portugal in 1749. John V died the following year and his son, Joseph I of Portugal, was crowned. In contrast to his father, Joseph I was fond of de Melo, and with the Queen Mother's approval, he appointed Melo as Minister of Foreign Affairs.
 
As the King's confidence in de Melo increased, the King entrusted him with more control of the state. By 1755, Sebastião de Melo was made Prime Minister. Impressed by British economic success he had witnessed while Ambassador, he successfully implemented similar economic policies in Portugal. He abolished slavery in Portugal and in the Portuguese colonies in India; reorganized the army and the navy; restructured the University of Coimbra, and ended discrimination against different Christian sects in Portugal.
 
But Sebastião de Melo's greatest reforms were economic and financial, with the creation of several companies and guilds to regulate every commercial activity. He demarcated the region for production of Port to ensure the wine's quality, and this was the first attempt to control wine quality and production in Europe. He ruled with a strong hand by imposing strict law upon all classes of Portuguese society from the high nobility to the poorest working class, along with a widespread review of the country's tax system. These reforms gained him enemies in the upper classes, especially among the high nobility, who despised him as a social upstart.
 
Disaster fell upon Portugal in the morning of 1 November 1755, when Lisbon was struck by a violent earthquake with an estimated Richter scale magnitude of 9. The city was razed to the ground by the earthquake and the subsequent tsunami and ensuing fires.<sup>[45]</sup> Sebastião de Melo survived by a stroke of luck and then immediately embarked on rebuilding the city, with his famous quote: "What now? We bury the dead and take care of the living."
 
The Great Lisbon Earthquake of 1755 devastated much of central and southern Portugal and Northern Africa.
 
Despite the calamity and huge death toll, Lisbon suffered no epidemics and within less than one year was already being rebuilt. The new city centre of Lisbon was designed to resist subsequent earthquakes. Architectural models were built for tests, and the effects of an earthquake were simulated by marching troops around the models. The buildings and big squares of the Pombaline City Centre still remain as one of Lisbon's tourist attractions. Sebastião de Melo also made an important contribution to the study of seismology by designing an inquiry that was sent to every parish in the country.
 
Following the earthquake, Joseph I gave his Prime Minister even more power, and Sebastião de Melo became a powerful, progressive dictator. As his power grew, his enemies increased in number, and bitter disputes with the high nobility became frequent. In 1758 Joseph I was wounded in an attempted assassination. The Távora family and the Duke of Aveiro were implicated and executed after a quick trial. The Jesuits were expelled from the country and their assets confiscated by the crown. Sebastião de Melo prosecuted every person involved, even women and children. This was the final stroke that broke the power of the aristocracy. Joseph I made his loyal minister Count of Oeiras in 1759.
 
In 1762, Spain invaded Portuguese territory as part of the Seven Years' War, but by 1763 the ''status quo'' between Spain and Portugal before the war had been restored.
 
Following the Távora affair, the new Count of Oeiras knew no opposition. Made "Marquis of Pombal" in 1770, he effectively ruled Portugal until Joseph I's death in 1779. However, historians also argue that Pombal’s "enlightenment," while far-reaching, was primarily a mechanism for enhancing autocracy at the expense of individual liberty and especially an apparatus for crushing opposition, suppressing criticism, and furthering colonial economic exploitation as well as intensifying book censorship and consolidating personal control and profit.<sup>[46]</sup>
 
=== National and Imperial change[edit] ===
Main article: History of Portugal (1777–1834)
 
John VI's reign was the first time that Portugal was atranscontinental country.
 
The new ruler, Queen Maria I of Portugal, disliked the Marquis because of the power he amassed, and never forgave him for the ruthlessness with which he dispatched the Távora family, and upon her accession to the throne, she withdrew all his political offices. Pombal died on his estate at Pombal in 1782.
 
In the autumn of 1807, Napoleon moved French troops through Spain to invade Portugal. From 1807 to 1811, British-Portuguese forces would successfully fight against the French invasion of Portugal, while the royal family and the Portuguese nobility, including Maria I, relocated to the Portuguese territory of Brazil, at that time a colony of the Portuguese Empire, in South America. This episode is known as the Transfer of the Portuguese Court to Brazil.
 
With the occupation by Napoleon, Portugal began a slow but inexorable decline that lasted until the 20th century. This decline was hastened by the independence in 1822 of the country's largest colonial possession, Brazil. In 1807, as Napoleon's army closed in on Lisbon, the Prince Regent João VI of Portugal transferred his court to Brazil and established Rio de Janeiro as the capital of the Portuguese Empire. In 1815, Brazil was declared a Kingdom and the Kingdom of Portugal was united with it, forming a pluricontinental State, the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves.
 
As a result of the change in its status and the arrival of the Portuguese royal family, Brazilian administrative, civic, economical, military, educational, and scientific apparatus were expanded and highly modernized. Portuguese and their allied British troops fought against the French Invasion of Portugal and by 1815 the situation in Europe had cooled down sufficiently that João VI would have been able to return safely to Lisbon. However, the King of Portugal remained in Brazil until the Liberal Revolution of 1820, which started in Porto, demanded his return to Lisbon in 1821.
 
Thus he returned to Portugal but left his son Pedro in charge of Brazil. When the Portuguese Government attempted the following year to return the Kingdom of Brazil to subordinate status, his son Pedro, with the overwhelming support of the Brazilian elites, declared Brazil's independence from Portugal. Cisplatina (today's sovereign state of Uruguay), in the south, was one of the last additions to the territory of Brazil under Portuguese rule.
 
=== Colonial restoration[edit] ===
Main article: History of Portugal (1834–1910)
 
Mouzinho de Albuquerque, key to Portuguese colonization in Africa.
 
At the height of European colonialism in the 19th century, Portugal had already lost its territory in South America and all but a few bases in Asia. Luanda, Benguela, Bissau, Lourenço Marques, Porto Amboim and the Island of Mozambique were among the oldest Portuguese-founded port cities in its African territories. During this phase, Portuguese colonialism focused on expanding its outposts in Africa into nation-sized territories to compete with other European powers there.
 
With the Conference of Berlin of 1884, Portuguese Africa territories had their borders formally established on request of Portugal in order to protect the centuries-long Portuguese interests in the continent from rivalries enticed by the Scramble for Africa. Portuguese Africa's cities and towns like Nova Lisboa, Sá da Bandeira, Silva Porto, Malanje, Tete, Vila Junqueiro, Vila Pery and Vila Cabral were founded or redeveloped inland during this period and beyond. New coastal towns like Beira,Moçâmedes, Lobito, João Belo, Nacala and Porto Amélia were also founded. Even before the turn of the 20th century, railway tracks as the Benguela railway in Angola, and the Beira railway in Mozambique, started to be built to link coastal areas and selected inland regions.
 
Other episodes during this period of the Portuguese presence in Africa include the 1890 British Ultimatum. This forced the Portuguese military to retreat from the land between the Portuguese colonies of Mozambique and Angola (most of present-day Zimbabwe and Zambia), which had been claimed by Portugal and included in its "Pink Map", which clashed with British aspirations to create a Cape to Cairo Railway.
 
The Portuguese territories in Africa were Cape Verde, São Tomé and Príncipe, Portuguese Guinea, Angola, andMozambique. The tiny fortress of São João Baptista de Ajudá on the coast of Dahomey, was also under Portuguese rule. In addition, Portugal still ruled the Asian territories of Portuguese India, Portuguese Timor and Macau.
 
=== Republic and turmoil[edit] ===
Main articles: Portuguese First Republic and Estado Novo (Portugal)
 
The 5 October 1910 Republican Revolution was initially unsupported and assumed to become nothing but a failure.
 
On 1 February 1908, the king Dom Carlos I of Portugal and his heir apparent, Prince Royal Dom Luís Filipe, Duke of Braganza, were murdered in Lisbon. Under his rule, Portugal had twice been declared bankrupt – on 14 June 1892, and again on 10 May 1902 – causing social turmoil, economic disturbances, protests, revolts and criticism of the monarchy.Manuel II of Portugal become the new king, but was eventually overthrown by the 5 October 1910 revolution, which abolished the regime and instated republicanism in Portugal. Political instability and economic weaknesses were fertile ground for chaos and unrest during the Portuguese First Republic. These conditions would lead to the failed Monarchy of the North, 28 May 1926 coup d'état, and the creation of the National Dictatorship (''Ditadura Nacional'').
 
This in turn led to the establishment of the right-wing dictatorship of the Estado Novo under António de Oliveira Salazar in 1933. Portugal was one of only five European countries to remain neutral in World War II. From the 1940s to the 1960s, Portugal was a founding member of NATO, OECD and the European Free Trade Association (EFTA). Gradually, new economic development projects and relocation of mainland Portuguese citizens into the overseas provinces in Africa were initiated, with Angola and Mozambique, as the largest and richest overseas territories, being the main targets of those initiatives. These actions were used to affirm Portugal's status as a transcontinental nation and not as a colonial empire.
 
After India attained independence in 1947, pro-Indian residents of Dadra and Nagar Haveli, with the support of the Indian government and the help of pro-independence organisations, separated the territories of Dadra and Nagar Haveli from Portuguese rule in 1954.<sup>[47]</sup> In 1961, São João Baptista de Ajudá's annexation by the Republic of Dahomey was the start of a process that led to the final dissolution of the centuries-old Portuguese Empire.
 
According to the census of 1921 São João Baptista de Ajudá had 5 inhabitants and, at the moment of the ultimatum by the Dahomey Government, it had only 2 inhabitants representing Portuguese Sovereignty. Another forcible retreat from overseas territories occurred in December 1961 when Portugal refused to relinquish the territories of Goa, Daman and Diu. As a result, the Portuguese army and navy were involved in armed conflict in its colony of Portuguese India against the Indian Armed Forces.
 
The operations resulted in the defeat of the limited Portuguese defensive garrison, which was forced to surrender to a much larger military force. The outcome was the loss of the remaining Portuguese territories in the Indian subcontinent. The Portuguese regime refused to recognize Indian sovereignty over the annexed territories, which continued to be represented in Portugal's National Assembly until the military coup of 1974.
 
Also in the early 1960s, independence movements in the Portuguese overseas provinces of Angola, Mozambique and Guinea in Africa, resulted in the Portuguese Colonial War (1961–1974).
 
=== Revolution and imperial end[edit] ===
Main articles: Portuguese Colonial War and Carnation Revolution
 
Throughout the colonial war period Portugal had to deal with increasing dissent, arms embargoes and other punitive sanctions imposed by most of the international community. However, the authoritarian and conservative Estado Novo regime, first installed and governed by António de Oliveira Salazar and from 1968 onwards led by Marcelo Caetano, tried to preserve a vast centuries-long intercontinental empire with a total area of 2,168,071 km<sup>2</sup>.<sup>[48]</sup>
 
The overseas provinces of Africawere granted independence after the revolution.
 
Portuguese Caravel, used during the Age of Discovery
 
The Portuguese government and army successfully resisted the decolonization of its overseas territories until April 1974, when a bloodless left-wing military coup inLisbon, known as the Carnation Revolution, led the way for the independence of the overseas territories in Africa and Asia, as well as for the restoration of democracy after two years of a transitional period known as PREC (''Processo Revolucionário Em Curso''). This period was characterized by social turmoil and power disputes between left- and right-wing political forces. The retreat from the overseas territories and the acceptance of its independence terms by Portuguese head representatives for overseas negotiations, which would create independent states in 1975, prompted a mass exodus of Portuguese citizens from Portugal's African territories (mostly from Portuguese Angola and Mozambique).<sup>[49][50]</sup>
 
Over one million Portuguese refugees fled the former Portuguese provinces as white settlers were usually not considered part of the new identities of the former Portuguese colonies in Africa and Asia. Mário Soares and António de Almeida Santos were charged with organising the independence of Portugal's overseas territories. By 1975, all the Portuguese African territories were independent and Portugal held its first democratic elections in 50 years.
 
The country continued to be governed by a Junta de Salvação Nacional until the Portuguese legislative election of 1976. It was won by the Portuguese Socialist Party (PS) and Mário Soares, its leader, became Prime Minister of the 1st Constitutional Government on 23 July. Mário Soares would be Prime Minister from 1976 to 1978 and again from 1983 to 1985. In this capacity Soares tried to resume the economic growth and development record that had been achieved before the Carnation Revolution, during the last decade of the previous regime. He initiated the process of accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) by starting accession negotiations as early as 1977.
 
The country bounced between socialism and adherence to the neoliberal model. Land reform and nationalizations were enforced; the Portuguese Constitution(approved in 1976) was rewritten in order to accommodate socialist and communist principles. Until the constitutional revisions of 1982 and 1989, the constitution was a highly charged ideological document with numerous references to socialism, the rights of workers, and the desirability of a socialist economy. Portugal's economic situation after its transition to democracy, obliged the government to pursue International Monetary Fund (IMF)-monitored stabilization programs in 1977–78 and 1983–85.
 
=== European integration[edit] ===
Main article: Portuguese transition to democracy
 
When the Lisbon Treaty was signed, the Portuguese Republic held the presidency for the European Council.
 
In 1986, Portugal joined the European Economic Community (EEC) that later became the European Union (EU). In the following years Portugal's economy progressed considerably as a result of EEC/EU structural and cohesion funds and Portuguese companies' easier access to foreign markets.
 
Portugal's last overseas territory, Macau, was peacefully handed over to the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1999, under the 1987 joint declaration that set the terms for Macau's handover from Portugal to the PRC. In 2002, the independence of East Timor (Asia) was formally recognized by Portugal, after an incomplete decolonization process that was started in 1975 because of the Carnation Revolution.
 
On 26 March 1995, Portugal started to implement Schengen Area rules, eliminating border controls with other Schengen members while simultaneously strengthening border controls with non-member states. In 1996 the country was a co-founder of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP) headquartered in Lisbon. Expo '98 took place in Portugal and in 1999 it was one of the founding countries of the Euro and the eurozone.
 
On 5 July 2004, José Manuel Barroso, then Prime Minister of Portugal, was nominated President of the European Commission, the most powerful office in the European Union. On 1 December 2009, the Treaty of Lisbon entered into force, after it had been signed by the European Union member states on 13 December 2007 in the Jerónimos Monastery, in Lisbon, enhancing the efficiency and democratic legitimacy of the Union and improving the coherence of its action.
 
Economic disruption and an unsustainable government debt in the wake of the late-2000s financial crisis led the country to negotiate in 2011 with the IMF and the European Union, through the European Financial Stability Mechanism (EFSM) and the European Financial Stability Facility (EFSF), a loan to help the country stabilise its finances.
 
== Geography[edit] ==
Main article: Geography of Portugal
 
A topographic and administrative map of the mainland Portuguese Republic.
 
Map of the European Union in the world with overseas territories (OCT) and outermost regions (OMR)
 
The territory of Portugal includes an area in the Iberian Peninsula (referred to as ''the continent'' by most Portuguese) and two archipelagos in the Atlantic Ocean: the archipelagos of Madeira and the Azores. It lies between latitudes 32° and 43° N, and longitudes 32° and 6° W.
 
Mainland Portugal is split by its main river, the Tagus that flows from Spain and disgorges in Tagus Estuary, in Lisbon, before escaping into the Atlantic. The northern landscape is mountainous towards the interior with several plateaus indented by river valleys, whereas the south, that includes the Algarve and the Alentejoregions, is characterized by rolling plains.
 
Azenhas do Mar, Sintra.
 
Portugal's highest peak is the similarly named Mount Pico on the island of Pico in the Azores. This ancient volcano, which measures 2,351 m (7,713 ft) is an iconic symbol of the Azores,<sup>[''citation needed'']</sup> while the Serra da Estrela on the mainland (the summit being 1,991 m (6,532 ft) above sea level) is an important seasonal attraction for skiers and winter sports enthusiasts.
 
The archipelagos of Madeira and the Azores are scattered within the Atlantic Ocean: the Azores straddling theMid-Atlantic Ridge on a tectonic triple junction, and Madeira along a range formed by in-plate hotspot geology. Geologically, these islands were formed by volcanic and seismic events, although the last terrestrial volcanic eruption occurred in 1957–58 (Capelinhos) and minor earthquakes occur sporadically, usually of low intensity.
 
Portugal's Exclusive Economic Zone, a sea zone over which the Portuguese have special rights over the exploration and use of marine resources, has 1,727,408 km<sup>2</sup>. This is the 3rd largest Exclusive Economic Zoneof the European Union and the 11th largest in the world.
 
=== Climate[edit] ===
Portugal is defined as a Mediterranean climate (''Csa'' in the South, interior, and Douro region; ''Csb'' in the North, Central Portugal and coastal Alentejo; and also Semi-arid climate or Steppe climate (''BSk'' in certain parts of Beja district) according to the Köppen-Geiger Climate Classification), and is one of the warmest European countries: the annual average temperature in mainland Portugal varies from 8–12 °C (46.4–53.6 °F) in the mountainous interior north to 16–19 °C (60.8–66.2 °F) in the south and on the Guadiana river basin. The Algarve, separated from the Alentejo region by mountains reaching up to 900 metres (3,000 ft) in Alto de Fóia, has a climate similar to that of the southern coastal areas of Spain or Southwest Australia.
 
Annual average rainfall in the mainland varies from just over 3,200 mm (126.0 in) in the northern mountains to 300 mm (11.8 in) in the area of the Massueime River, near Côa, along the Douro river. Mount Pico is recognized as receiving the largest annual rainfall (over 6,250 mm (246.1 in) per year) in Portugal, according to ''Instituto Português do Mar e da Atmosfera'' (English: Portuguese Institute of the Sea and the Atmosphere).<sup>[51]</sup>
 
In some areas, such as the Guadiana basin, annual average temperatures can be as high as 20 °C (68 °F), and summer highest temperatures may be over 40 °C (104 °F). The record high of 47.4 °C (117.3 °F) was recorded in Amareleja, although this might not be the hottest spot in summer, according to satellite readings.<sup>[52][53]</sup>
 
Snowfalls occur regularly in the winter in the interior North and Centre of the country in particular in the districts of Vila Real,Bragança, Viseu and Guarda. In winter temperatures may drop below −10.0 °C (14.0 °F) in particular in Serra da Estrela, Serra do Gerês, Serra do Marão and Serra de Montesinho, and have even been recorded below -20°C. In these places snow can fall any time from October to May. In the South of the country snowfalls are rare but still occur in the highest elevations.
 
The country has around 2500 to 3200 hours of sunshine a year, an average of 4–6 h in winter and 10–12 h in the summer, with higher values in the south-east and lower in the north-west.
 
The sea surface temperature on the west coast of mainland Portugal varies from 13–15 °C (55.4–59.0 °F) in winter to 18–22 °C (64.4–71.6 °F) in the summer while on the south coast it ranges from 15 °C (59.0 °F) in Winter and rises in the summer to about 23 °C (73.4 °F) occasionally reaching 25 °C (77.0 °F).
 
Both the archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira have a subtropical climate, although variations between islands exist, making weather predictions very difficult (owing to rough topography). The Madeira and Azorean archipelagos have a narrower temperature range, with annual average temperatures exceeding 20 °C (68 °F) along the coast (according to the Portuguese Meteorological Institute). Some islands in Azores do have drier months in the summer. Consequently, the island of the Azores have been identified as having a Mediterranean climate (both''Csa'' and ''Csb'' types), while some islands (such as Flores or Corvo) are classified as Maritime Temperate (''Cfb'') or Humid subtropical (''Cfa''), respectively, according to Köppen-Geiger classification.
 
Porto Santo island in Madeira has a semi-arid Steppe climate (''BSh''). The Savage Islands, which are part of the regional territory of Madeira are unique in being classified as a Desert climates (''BWh'') with an annual average rainfall of approximately 150 mm (5.9 in). The sea surface temperature in the archipelagos varies from 17–18 °C (62.6–64.4 °F) in winter to 24–25 °C (75.2–77.0 °F) in the summer occasionally reaching 26 °C (78.8 °F).
* Landscapes and climates of Portugal
* Benagil coastal cave, on theAlgarve. 
* Sete Cidades volcanic lagoons, on the island of São Miguel. 
* The Serra da Estrela, the highest mountain range oncontinental Portugal. 
* Snowy winter landscape, nearMontalegre. 
* Beach in Vila Nova de Milfontes, on the Alentejo region.
 
* The cultivated hillsides of theDouro river valley of Northern Portugal. 
* Monsaraz and the Alqueva Reservoir on the background, on the Alentejo. 
* Mount Pico in the distance, the highest peak in all of Portugal, on the volcanic Pico Island. 
* Cabo da Roca, the westernmost point of mainland Europe. 
* View of the mountains in Madeira island.
 
=== Biodiversity[edit] ===
Peneda-Gerês National Park, the only national park in Portugal
 
Owing to humans occupying the territory of Portugal for thousands of years, little is left of the original vegetation. Protected areas of Portugal include one national park (Portuguese: <span lang="pt">''Parque Nacional''</span>), 12 natural parks (Portuguese: <span lang="pt">''Parque Natural''</span>), nine natural reserves (Portuguese: <span lang="pt">''Reserva Natural''</span>), five natural monuments (Portuguese: <span lang="pt">''Monumento Natural''</span>), and seven protected landscapes (Portuguese: <span lang="pt">''Paisagem Protegida''</span>), which include the Parque Nacional da Peneda-Gerês, the Parque Natural da Serra da Estrela and the Paul d'Arzila.
 
These natural environments are shaped by diverse flora, and include widespread species of pine (especially the ''Pinus pinaster'' and ''Pinus pinea'' species), the English oak (''Quercus robur''), the Pyrenean oak ( ''Quercus pyrenaica'') the chestnut (''Castanea sativa''), the cork-oak (''Quercus suber''), the holm oak (''Quercus ilex'') or the Portuguese oak (''Quercus faginea''). Due to their economic value, some species of the ''Eucalyptus'' genus were introduced and are now common, despite their environmental impact.
 
Laurisilva is a unique type of subtropical rainforest found in few areas of Europe and the world: in the Azores, and in particular on the island of Madeira, there are large forests of endemic ''Laurisilva'' forests (the latter protected as a natural heritage preserve). There are several species of diverse mammalian fauna, including the fox, badger, iberian lynx, iberian wolf, wild goat (''Capra pyrenaica''), wild cat (''Felis silvestris''), hare, weasel, polecat, chameleon, mongoose, civet, brown bear<sup>[''citation needed'']</sup> (spotted near Rio Minho, close to Peneda-Gerês) and many others. Portugal is an important stopover for migratory birds, in places such as Cape St. Vincent or the Monchique mountains, where thousands of birds cross from Europe to Africa during the autumn or in the spring (return migration).
 
Chameleon in the region of Algarve
 
Most of the avian species congregate along the Iberian Peninsula since it is the closest stopover between Northern Europe and Africa. Six hundred bird species occur in Portugal (either for nesting or during the course of migration), and annually there are new registries of nesting species. The archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira are transient stopover for American, European, and African birds, while continental Portugal mostly encounters European and African bird species.
 
There are more than 100 freshwater fish species, varying from the giant European catfish (in the Tagus International Natural Park) to some small and endemic species that live only in small lakes (along the western lakes for example). Some of these rare and specific species are highly endangered because of habitat loss, pollution and drought. Up-welling along the west coast of Portugal makes the sea extremely rich in nutrients and diverse species of marine fish; the Portuguese marine waters are one of the richest in the world. Marine fish species are more common, and include thousands of species, such as the sardine (''Sardina pilchardus''), tuna and Atlantic mackerel. Bioluminescent species are also well represented (including species in different colour spectrum and forms), like the glowing plankton that are possible to observe in some beaches.
 
There are many endemic insect species, most only found in certain parts of Portugal, while other species are more widespread like the stag beetle (''Lucanus cervus'') and the cicada. The Macaronesian islands (Azores and Madeira) have many endemic species (like birds, reptiles, bats, insects, snails and slugs) that evolved independently from other regions of Portugal. In Madeira, for example, it is possible to observe more than 250 species of land gastropods.
 
== Government[edit] ==
Main articles: Government of Portugal and Politics of Portugal
 
Pedro Passos Coelho,118th Prime Minister of Portugal, in office since 21 June 2011.
 
Aníbal Cavaco Silva,
19th President of Portugal, in office since 9 March 2006.
 
Portugal has been a semi-presidential constitutional republic since the ratification of the Constitution of 1976, with Lisbon, the nation's largest city, as its capital. The constitution grants the division, or separation, of powers among legislative, executive (whereby the President and the Prime Minister share key executive powers), and judicial branches. The four main institutions as described in this constitution are the President of the Republic, the Parliament, known as the ''Assembleia da República'' (English: Assembly of the Republic), the Government, headed by a Prime Minister, and the courts.<sup>[13]</sup>
 
The President, who is elected to a five-year term, has a supervisory executive role: the current President isAníbal Cavaco Silva. The Parliament is a chamber composed of 230 deputies elected for a four-year term. The government, whose head is the Prime Minister (currently Pedro Passos Coelho), chooses a ''Council of Ministers'', that comprises the Ministers and State Secretaries. The courts are organized into several levels: judicial, administrative, and fiscal branches. The Supreme Courts are institutions of last resort/appeal. A thirteen-member Constitutional Court oversees the constitutionality of the laws.
 
Portugal operates a multi-party system of competitive legislatures/local administrative governments at the national-, regional- and local-levels. The Legislative Assembly, Regional Assemblies and local municipalities and/or parishes, are dominated by two political parties, the Socialist Party and the Social Democratic Party, in addition to the Democratic Unity Coalition (Portuguese Communist Party plus Ecologist Party "The Greens"), the Left Bloc and the Democratic and Social Centre – People's Party, which garner between 5 and 15% of the vote regularly.
 
=== Executive branch[edit] ===
The President, elected to a five-year term by direct, universal suffrage, is also Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces. Presidential powers include the appointment of the Prime Minister and Council of Ministers (where the President is obligated by the results from Legislative Elections); dismissing the Prime Minister; dissolving the Assembly (to call early elections); vetoing legislation (which may be overridden by the Assembly); and declaring a State of War or siege.
 
The President is advised on issues of importance by the Council of State, which is composed of six senior civilian officers, any former Presidents elected under the 1976 Constitution, five-members chosen by the Assembly, and five selected by the president.
 
The Government is headed by the presidentially appointed Prime Minister, who names a Council of Ministers to act as the government and cabinet. Each government is required to define the broad outline of its policies in a program, and present it to the Assembly for a mandatory period of debate. The failure of the Assembly to reject the program by a majority of deputies confirms the government in office.
 
=== Legislative branch[edit] ===
São Bento Palace in Lisbon is the seat of Portuguese Legislature.
 
The Assembly of the Republic is a unicameral body composed of up to 230 deputies. Elected by universal suffrage according to a system of proportional representation, deputies serve four-year terms of office, unless the President dissolves the Assembly and calls for new elections.
 
=== Law and criminal justice[edit] ===
Main articles: Law of Portugal and Drug policy of Portugal
 
''Tribunal de Guimarães'', main courthouse in Guimarães
 
The Portuguese legal system is part of the civil law legal system, also called the continental family legal system. The main laws include the Constitution (1976, as amended), the Portuguese Civil Code (1966, as amended) and the Penal Code of Portugal (1982, as amended). Other relevant laws are the ''Commercial Code'' (1888, as amended) and the ''Civil Procedure Code'' (1961, as amended).
 
Portuguese law applied in the former colonies and territories and continues to be the major influence for those countries. Portugal's main police organizations are the ''Guarda Nacional Republicana – GNR'' (National Republican Guard), agendarmerie; the ''Polícia de Segurança Pública – PSP'' (Public Security Police), a civilian police force who work in urban areas; and the ''Polícia Judiciária – PJ'' (Judicial Police), a highly specialized criminal investigation police that is overseen by the Public Ministry.
 
Portugal was one of the first countries in the world to abolish the death penalty. Maximum jail sentences are limited to 25 years.
 
Portugal has arguably the most liberal laws concerning possession of illicit drugs in the Western world. In 2001, Portugal decriminalized possession of effectively all drugs that are still illegal in other developed nations including, but not limited to,cannabis, cocaine, heroin, and LSD. While possession is legal, trafficking and possession of more than "10 days worth of personal use" are still punishable by jail time and fines. People caught with small amounts of any drug are given the choice to go to a rehab facility, and may refuse treatment without consequences. Despite criticism from other European nations, who stated Portugal's drug consumption would tremendously increase, overall drug use has declined along with the number of HIV infection cases, which had dropped 50 percent by 2009. Drug use among 16-to-18-year-olds also declined, however the use of marijuana rose only slightly among that age group. <sup>[54][55][56]</sup>
 
On 31 May 2010, Portugal became the sixth country in Europe and the eighth country in the world to legally recognize same-sex marriage on the national level. The law came into force on 5 June 2010.<sup>[24</sup>
* {{Link||2=http://www.projetoderedes.com.br/artigos/artigo_modelo_osi.php |3=Artigo - O modelo OSI}}
 
Obtida de "https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camada_de_rede"