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'''Philip Morrison''' ([[Somerville (Nova Jérsei)|Somerville]], [[Nova Jérsei]], {{dtlink|lang=br|7|11|1915}} — [[Cambridge (Massachusetts)|Cambridge]], [[Massachusetts]], {{dtlink|lang=br|22|4|2005}}) foi um [[Física|físico]] [[Estados Unidos|estadunidense]]. Foi [[Professor#Estados Unidos|professor]] do [[Instituto de Tecnologia de Massachusetts]] (MIT). É conhecido por seu trabalho no [[Projeto Manhattan]] durante a [[Segunda Guerra Mundial]], e depois por seu trabalho em [[mecânica quântica]], [[física nuclear]] e [[astrofísica]] de alta energia.{{sfn|Sartori|Tsipis|2009|p=3}}
{{em tradução|:en:Philip Morrison}}
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A graduate of [[Carnegie Tech]], Morrison became interested in physics, which he studied at the [[University of California, Berkeley]], under the supervision of [[J. Robert Oppenheimer]]. He also joined the [[Communist Party USA|Communist Party]]. During [[World War II]] he joined the [[Manhattan Project]]'s [[Metallurgical Laboratory]] at the [[University of Chicago]], where he worked with [[Eugene Wigner]] on the design of [[nuclear reactors]].
In 1944 he moved to the Manhattan Project's [[Los Alamos Laboratory]] in New Mexico, where he worked with [[George Kistiakowsky]] on the development of [[explosive lens]]es required to detonate the [[implosion-type nuclear weapon]]. Morrison transported the [[Pit (nuclear weapon)|core]] of the [[Trinity test]] device to the test site in the back seat of a Dodge sedan. As leader of [[Project Alberta]]'s pit crew he helped load the atomic bombs on board the aircraft that participated in the [[atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki]]. After the war ended, he traveled to Hiroshima as part of the Manhattan Project's mission to assess the damage.
After the war he became a champion of [[nuclear nonproliferation]]. He wrote for the [[Bulletin of Atomic Scientists]], and helped found the [[Federation of American Scientists]] and the [[Institute for Defense and Disarmament Studies]]. He was one of the few ex-communists to remain employed and academically active throughout the 1950s, but his research turned away from nuclear physics towards astrophysics. He published papers on [[cosmic rays]], and a 1958 paper of his is considered to mark the birth of [[gamma ray astronomy]]. He was also known for writing [[popular science]] books and articles, and appearing in television programs.
==Early life and education==
Philip Morrison was born in [[Somerville, New Jersey]], November 7, 1915, the only son of Moses Morrison and Tillie Rosenbloom.{{sfn|Sartori|Tsipis |2009|p=3}} He had a younger sister, Gail.<ref name="Tech Grad Helped Make Atomic Bomb">{{cite news |url=http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1129&dat=19450813&id=p2MwAAAAIBAJ&sjid=xGkDAAAAIBAJ&pg=3112,5163064 |title=Tech Grad Helped Make Atomic Bomb |date=August 13, 1945 |newspaper=[[Pittsburgh Post-Gazette]] |accessdate=February 8, 2014}}</ref> The family moved to [[Pittsburgh]] when he was two. He contracted polio when he was four, and as a result wore a calliper on one leg, and spent his last years in a wheelchair.{{sfn|Sartori|Tsipis |2009|p=3}}<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1488726/Philip-Morrison.html |newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |date=April 27, 2005 |title=Philip Morrison |accessdate=25 de outubro de 2014}}</ref>
Because of his polio, Morrison did not commence school until the third grade. On graduating from high school he entered [[Carnegie Mellon University|Carnegie Tech]], planning to major in [[electrical engineering]]. While there he became interested in [[physics]].<ref name="Physics Today">{{cite journal|author=Sartori, Leo|author2=Tsipis, Kosta|title=Obituary: Philip Morrison|journal=Physics Today|date=March 2006|volume=59|issue=3|pages=83–85|url=http://scitation.aip.org/content/aip/magazine/physicstoday/article/59/3/10.1063/1.2195325|doi=10.1063/1.2195325|bibcode = 2006PhT....59c..83S }}</ref> He earned his [[Bachelor of Science]] (B.S.) in 1936. He then entered the [[University of California, Berkeley]], where he earned his [[PhD]] in [[theoretical physics]] in 1940 under the supervision of [[J. Robert Oppenheimer]],<ref name="NPF">{{cite web |url=http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/library/biographies/bio_morrison-philip.htm |title= Philip Morrison |publisher=Nuclear Age Peace Foundation |accessdate=February 8, 2014}}</ref> writing his thesis on "Three Problems in Atomic Electrodynamics".{{sfn|Sartori|Tsipis |2009|p=4}}
In 1938, Morrison married Emily Kramer, a girl he had known in high school,{{sfn|Sartori|Tsipis |2009|p=4}} and a fellow Carnegie Tech graduate.<ref name="Tech Grad Helped Make Atomic Bomb"/> They divorced in 1961. In 1965 he married Phylis Hagen. They remained together until Phylis died in 2002.{{sfn|Sartori|Tsipis |2009|p=4}}
==Manhattan Project==
After he finished his Ph.D. Morrison took a position as an instructor at [[San Francisco State University|San Francisco State College]]. In 1941 he became an instructor at the [[University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign|University of Illinois]]. In December 1942, with [[World War II]] raging around the globe, he was recruited by [[Robert F. Christy]] to join the [[Manhattan Project]]'s [[Metallurgical Laboratory]] at the [[University of Chicago]] in January 1943. There he worked with [[Eugene Wigner]] on the design of [[nuclear reactors]].{{sfn|Sartori|Tsipis |2009|p=5}}<ref name="oral">{{cite web |url=http://www.aip.org/history/ohilist/4343.html |title=Oral History Transcript — Dr. Philip Morrison |publisher=[[American Institute of Physics]] |accessdate=25 de outubro de 2014}}</ref>
Concerned about the danger from the [[German nuclear energy project]], Morrison helped persuade the director of the Manhattan Project, [[Brigadier General (United States)|Brigadier General]] [[Leslie R. Groves, Jr.]], to initiate the [[Alsos Mission]] in order to gather information on it.{{sfn|Sartori|Tsipis |2009|p=5}}
With the work in Chicago winding down in mid-1944, Morrison moved to the Manhattan Project's [[Los Alamos Laboratory]] in New Mexico as a group leader. His first task was to help determine how much [[plutonium]] a bomb would require. He calculated that {{convert|6|kg}} would be sufficient. He then worked with [[George Kistiakowsky]] on the [[explosive lens]]es required to detonate the [[implosion-type nuclear weapon]].{{sfn|Sartori|Tsipis |2009|p=6}}
Morrison transported the [[Pit (nuclear weapon)|core]] of the [[Trinity test]] gadget to the test site in the back seat of a Dodge sedan.{{sfn|Sartori|Tsipis |2009|p=6}} He was an eyewitness to the test on July 16, 1945, and wrote a report on it.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear-weapons/history/pre-cold-war/manhattan-project/trinity/eyewitness-philip-morrison_1945-07-16.htm |title=Trinity Test, July 16, 1945 Eyewitness Report by Philip Morrison |publisher=Nuclear Age Peace Foundation |accessdate=February 8, 2014}}</ref> A month later, as leader of [[Project Alberta]]'s pit crew, he helped load the atomic bombs on board the aircraft that participated in the [[atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki]]. After the war ended, Morrison and [[Robert Serber]] traveled to Hiroshima as part of the Manhattan Project's mission to assess the damage.{{sfn|Sartori|Tsipis |2009|p=6}}
==Activism==
Morrison returned to Los Alamos, where he remained until 1946. He turned down an offer from [[Ernest O. Lawrence]] to return to Berkeley, and instead accepted an invitation from [[Hans Bethe]] to join him at the [[physics]] faculty at [[Cornell University]].{{sfn|Sartori|Tsipis |2009|p=7}}
After surveying the destruction left by the use of the atom bomb in Hiroshima, Morrison became a champion of [[nuclear nonproliferation]]. He wrote for the [[Bulletin of Atomic Scientists]], and helped found the [[Federation of American Scientists]] and the [[Institute for Defense and Disarmament Studies]].<ref name="obit"/> He testified before Congress on the need for civilian control of nuclear energy,{{sfn|Sartori|Tsipis |2009|p=7}} and participated in the [[Civil Rights Congress]] in New York and the [[Cultural and Scientific Conference for World Peace]] in 1949. That year, ''[[Life (magazine)|Life]]'' magazine included his image in a gallery of "America's 50 most eminent dupes and [[fellow traveller]]s".{{sfn|Sartori|Tsipis |2009|p=9}}
Morrison had joined the [[Communist Party USA|Communist Party]] while he was at Berkeley. The [[House Un-American Activities Committee]] devoted four pages of a 1951 report to his activities, and in 1953, he was called before the [[Senate Internal Security Subcommittee]]. [[Theodore Paul Wright]], the President of Cornell, was put under great pressure from board members and alumni to fire Morrison, but Bethe remained supportive, and [[Robert R. Wilson]] declared that Morrison had "demonstrated his patriotism by the distinguished role he played in the wartime development of the atomic bomb."<ref name="obit"/>
[[Deane Malott]], who became president of Cornell in 1951,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cornell.edu/president/history_bio_malott.cfm |title=Deane Waldo Malott |publisher=[[Cornell University]] |accessdate=February 8, 2014}}</ref> was much less sympathetic, and instructed Morrison to curtail all activities beyond his academic field.{{sfn|Sartori|Tsipis |2009|p=9}} Morrison agreed to do so in 1954.<ref name="obit"/> Nonetheless, he was one of the few ex-communists to remain employed and academically active throughout the 1950s.{{sfn|Sartori|Tsipis |2009|pp=11-12}}
In 1999, writer [[Jeremy Stone]] alleged that Morrison had been the Soviet spy [[Perseus (spy)|Perseus]], a charge that Morrison strongly and credibly rebutted.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Irwin |last=Goodwin |title=New Book Unmasks Scientist X as Spy, But Facts of Case Tell a Different Story |journal=Physics Today |date=July 1999 |volume=52 |issue=7 |pages=39 |doi=10.1063/1.882748|bibcode = 1999PhT....52g..39G }}</ref> Stone accepted his rebuttal.<ref>{{Cite news| issn=0362-4331| title=Accuser in Spy Case Accepts a Denial| work=The New York Times| accessdate=2014-03-31| date=1999-05-14| url=http://www.nytimes.com/1999/05/14/us/accuser-in-spy-case-accepts-a-denial.html}}</ref>
==Academic work==
[[File:Cycle of pulsed gamma rays from the Vela pulsar 220px.gif|thumb|right|Pulse of [[gamma rays]] from from the [[Vela pulsar]] as constructed from photons detected by Fermi's Large Area Telescope]]
Morrison co-wrote a paper with [[Leonard I. Schiff]] in 1940 in which they calculated the [[gamma rays]] emitted by the process of [[K-electron capture]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=Radiative K Capture |last=Morrison |first=Philip |last2=Schiff |first2=L. I. |authorlink=Leonard Schiff |journal=[[Physical Review]] |issn=1050-2947 |volume=58 |issue=1 |pages=24–26 |date=July 1940 |publisher=American Physical Society |doi=10.1103/PhysRev.58.24|bibcode = 1940PhRv...58...24M }}</ref> Initially at Cornell after the war, Morrison continued working in nuclear physics, collaborating with Bethe on a textbook, ''Elementary Nuclear Physics'' (1952), one of the early treatments of the relatively new field.{{sfn|Sartori|Tsipis |2009|p=13}}
Following his political stances, Morrison's attention began drifting towards the stars. In 1954, he published a paper with [[Bruno Rossi]] and Stanislaw Olbert in which they explored [[Enrico Fermi]]'s theory of how [[cosmic rays]] travel through the galaxy.<ref>{{cite journal |title=The Origin of Cosmic Rays |last=Morrison |first=Philip |last2=Olbert |first2=Stanislaw |last3=Rossi |first3=Bruno |authorlink3=Bruno Rossi |journal=[[Physical Review]] |issn=1050-2947 |volume=94 |issue=2 |pages=440–453 |date=April 1954 |publisher=American Physical Society |doi=10.1103/PhysRev.94.440|bibcode = 1954PhRv...94..440M }}</ref> Morrison followed this up with a review of theories of the origins of cosmic rays in 1957.<ref>{{cite journal |title=On the Origins of Cosmic Rays |last=Morrison |first=P. |journal=[[Reviews of Modern Physics]] |issn=0034-6861 |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=235–243 |date=April 1957 |publisher=American Physical Society |doi=10.1103/RevModPhys.29.235 |bibcode = 1957RvMP...29..235M }}</ref> A 1958 paper in ''[[Nuovo Cimento]]'' is considered to mark the birth of [[gamma ray astronomy]].<ref>{{cite journal |journal=[[Nuovo Cimento]] |issn=0029-6341 |date=16 March 1958 |volume=7 |issue=6 |pages=858–865 |title=On gamma-ray astronomy |first=Philip |last=Morrison |doi=10.1007/BF02745590 }}</ref>{{sfn|Sartori|Tsipis |2009|pp=11-12}}
In collaboration with [[Giuseppe Cocconi]], Morrison published a paper in 1959 proposing the potential of [[microwaves]] in the search for [[interstellar communication]]s, a component of the modern [[SETI]] program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Cocconi |first=Giuseppi, and Morrison, Philip |journal=Nature |issn=0028-0836 |title=Searching for Interstellar Communications |date=September 19, 1959 |volume=184 |issue=4690 |pages=844–846 |url=http://www.coseti.org/morris_0.htm |accessdate=May 3, 2008 |doi=10.1038/184844a0 |last2=Morrison |first2=Philip|bibcode = 1959Natur.184..844C }}</ref> This was one of the first proposals for detecting extraterrestrial intelligence. He conceded that "The probability of success is difficult to estimate, but
if we never search, the chance of success is zero."{{sfn|Sartori|Tsipis |2009|p=13}}
Morrison remained at Cornell until 1964, when he went to the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] (MIT). He remained there for the remainder of his career,<ref name="MIT"/> becoming Institute Professor in 1976, and Institute Professor Emeritus in 1986.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://physicsnow.org/history/acap/biographies/bio.jsp?morrisonp |title=Philip Morrison |publisher=Array of Contemporary American Physicists |accessdate=February 8, 2014 }}</ref> In 1963, working in collaboration with a student of his, James Felten, Morrison had investigated the effect of [[inverse Compton scattering]], an important source of cosmic x-rays and gamma rays.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Recoil Photons from Scattering of Starlight by Relativistic Electrons |last=Felten |first=J. E. |last2=Morrison |first=P. |journal=[[Physical Review Letters]] |volume=10 |issue=10 |pages=453–457|date=May 1963 |publisher=American Physical Society |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.10.453|bibcode = 1963PhRvL..10..453F }}</ref> At MIT, Morrison teamed up with Bruno Rossi's x-ray group there, and also with [[Riccardo Giacconi]]'s group at nearby [[American Science and Engineering]]. Morrison became deeply involved in the exploration of the cosmos through its x-ray and gamma ray emissions. In a 1960 paper, he noted the similarities between [[pulsar]]s and [[quasar]]s. He returned to this in 1976, applying his model to the [[radio galaxy]] [[Cygnus A]].{{sfn|Sartori|Tsipis |2009|p=14}}
==Media work==
Morrison was known for his numerous books and television programs. He produced 68 [[popular science]] articles between 1949 and 1976, ten in issues of ''[[Scientific American]]''.{{sfn|Sartori|Tsipis |2009|p=14}} He provided the narration and script for ''[[Powers of Ten (film)|Powers of Ten]]'' in 1977.<ref name="MIT">{{cite news |newspaper=MIT News |url=http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2005/morrison.html |title=Institute Professor Philip Morrison dies at 89 |first=Elizabeth A. |last=Thomson |date=April 27, 2005 |accessdate=February 8, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite video | people = [[Charles and Ray Eames]] | title = Powers of Ten | medium = short film | publisher = [[IBM]] | location = [[Chicago]], [[Illinois|Il]], [[United States|USA]] | date = 1977}}</ref> With his wife, Phylis, they turned the same material into a [[coffee table book]] in 1982.<ref name="MIT"/><ref>{{cite book|title=Powers of Ten: A Book About the Relative Size of Things in the Universe and the Effect of Adding another Zero|isbn=978-0-7167-6008-5|year=1982, revised 1994|publisher=Scientific American Library|first=Philip |last=Morrison |first2=Phylis |last2=Morrison |accessdate=February 8, 2014}}</ref> He also appeared as himself in the science documentary film ''Target...Earth?'' in 1980. In 1987, [[PBS]] aired his six part [[miniseries]], ''The Ring of Truth: An Inquiry into How We Know What We Know'', which he also hosted.<ref>{{cite news |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |url=http://www.nytimes.com/1987/10/20/arts/tv-reviews-the-ring-of-truth-on-ways-of-perception.html?pagewanted=1 |title=TV Reviews: 'The Ring of Truth,' On Ways of Perception}}</ref> In addition, he was a columnist and reviewer of books on science for ''[[Scientific American]]'' starting in 1965.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.setileague.org/admin/philmorr.htm |title=Remembering Philip Morrison |first=H. Paul |last=Shuch |publisher=The SETI League |date=April 25, 2005 |accessdate=February 8, 2014 }}</ref>
In later life he was a critic of the [[Strategic Defense Initiative]].<ref name="Compton">{{cite web |url=http://compton.mit.edu/speakers/philip-morrison/ |title=Philip Morrison, 1975 |publisher=MIT |accessdate=February 8, 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Morrison |first=Philip |last2=Tsipis |first2=Kosta |last3=Wiesner |first3=Jerome |authorlink3=Jerome Wiesner |date=February 1994 |title= The Future of American Defense|journal=[[Scientific American]] |volume= 270|issue=2 |pages=20–27|bibcode = 1994SciAm.270...20P |doi = 10.1038/scientificamerican0194-20 }}</ref> He authored or co-authored a number of books critical of the [[Cold War]] and the [[nuclear arms race]], including ''Winding Down: The Price of Defense'' (1979), ''The Nuclear Almanac'' (1984), ''Reason Enough to Hope'' (1998) ''Beyond the Looking Glass'' (1993).{{sfn|Sartori|Tsipis |2009|p=12}}
==Recognition==
Morrison was a fellow of the [[American Physical Society]], and chairman of the [[Federation of American Scientists]] from 1973 to 1976. He was also a member of the [[United States National Academy of Sciences|National Academy of Sciences]], the [[International Astronomical Union]], the [[American Association of Physics Teachers]], the [[American Academy of Arts and Sciences]] and the [[American Philosophical Society]].<ref name="MIT"/>
Over his lifetime, Morrison received numerous honors and awards. He delivered the 1968 [[Royal Institution Christmas Lectures]] on ''Gulliver's Laws: The Physics of Large and Small'',{{sfn|Sartori|Tsipis |2009|p=17}} and the 1982 [[National Radio Astronomy Observatory#Jansky Prize|Jansky Lectureship]] before the [[National Radio Astronomy Observatory]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nrao.edu/jansky/janskyprize.shtml |title=Jansky Prize |publisher=[[National Radio Astronomy Observatory]] |accessdate=February 8, 2014}}</ref> He was awarded the Presidential Award and Pregel Prize of the [[New York Academy of Sciences]], the Babson Prize of the Gravity Foundation, the [[American Association for the Advancement of Science]]'s Westinghouse Science Writing Award, the [[American Association of Physics Teachers]]'s [[Oersted Medal]], the [[Dickinson College]] Priestly Medallion, Minnesota Museum of Science Public Science Medal, the [[American Institute of Physics]]'s [[Andrew Gemant Award]],<ref name="MIT"/> the [[Astronomical Society of the Pacific]]'s [[Klumpke-Roberts Award]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.astrosociety.org/membership/awards/pastklumpke.html |title=Past Recipients of the Klumpke-Roberts Award |publisher=[[Astronomical Society of the Pacific]] |accessdate=February 8, 2014}}</ref> the John P. McGovern Science and Society Award, the William Procter Prize for Scientific Achievement.<ref name="NPF"/> and, with his wife Phylis, the Wheeler Prize by the [[Boston Museum of Science]].<ref name="MIT"/>
==Death==
Morrison died in his sleep of a respiratory failure at his home in [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]], on April 22, 2005. He was survived by his stepson Bert Singer.{{sfn|Sartori|Tsipis |2009|p=3}}<ref name="obit">{{cite news |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=April 26, 2005 |title=Philip Morrison, 89, Builder of First Atom Bomb, Dies |first=Dennis |last=Overbye |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2005/04/26/science/26morrison.html |accessdate=February 8, 2014}}</ref>
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==Bibliografia==
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