Usuário(a):Stanglavine/Rascunho1

Arquitetura sagrada (também conhecida como arquitetura religiosa) é uma prática arquitetônica religiosa que preocupa-se com o design e construção de locais de culto e/ou espaços sagrados, tais como igrejas, mesquitas, estupas, sinagogas e templos. Muitas culturas dedicaram recursos consideráveis para a arquitetura sagrada e locais de culto. Espaços religiosos e sagrados estão entre os edifícios monolíticos mais impressionantes e permanentes criados pela humanidade. Por outro lado, a arquitetura sagrada engloba também locais íntimos, podendo ser não-monolíticos, efêmeros e privados (não-públicos).

As estruturas sagradas e religiosas evoluíram ao longo dos séculos e se tornaram os maiores edifícios do mundo, antes dos arranha-céus modernos. Por mais que vários estilos empregados na arquitetura sagrada tenham refletido tendências de outras estruturas, estes estilos acabaram tornando-se únicos e foram utilizados pela arquitetura contemporânea em outros edifícios. Com a ascensão das religiões abraâmicas monoteístas (especialmente o cristianismo e islamismo), as construções religiosas tornaram-se cada vez mais centros de adoração, oração e meditação.

A disciplina acadêmica ocidental geralmente nomeada história da arquitetura acompanha de perto a história da arquitetura sagrada desde os tempos antigos até o período barroco, ao menos. A geometria sagrada, a iconografia, o uso de semióticos sofisticados (como sinais e símbolos) e a motivação religiosa são endêmicos para a arquitetura sagrada.

Aspectos espirituais da arquitetura sagrada editar

Ilustração do layout interno de uma tradicional igreja cristã ortodoxa.

Norman L. Koonce sugere que o objetivo da arquitetura sagrada é tornar "transparente a fronteira entre a matéria e a mente, entre a carne e o espírito". Enquanto isso, Richard Kieckhefer sugere que entrar em um edifício religioso é uma metáfora para entrar em uma relação espiritual. Kieckhefer também sugere que o espaço sagrado pode ser analisado a partir de três fatores que afetam o processo espiritual: o espaço longitudinal, que enfatiza a procissão e o resultado dos atos sacramentais, o auditório, que sugere a pergunta e a resposta, e as formas de espaço comum, que aumentam a intimidade e a participação no culto.

Arquitetura antiga editar

Interior do antigo templo egípcio de Karnak.

A arquitetura religiosa compreende também alguns estilos arquitetônicos antigos, incluindo a arquitetura neolítica, egípcia e suméria. Os edifícios religiosos antigos, especialmente os templos, eram muitas vezes vistos como a morada dos deuses e utilizados como locais de sacrifícios. Túmulos antigos e estruturas funerárias também são exemplos de estruturas arquitetônicas que refletem as crenças religiosas de suas respectivas sociedades. O Templo de Karnak em Tebas, no Egito, foi construído durante um período de mil e trezentos anos, sendo composto por vários templos e considerado a maior estrutura religiosa já construída. A arquitetura religiosa egípcia tem fascinado arqueólogos e despertado a imaginação do público por milênios.

Arquitetura clássica editar

O Partenon em Atenas, Grécia.

Por volta de 600 a.C., as colunas de madeira do templo de Hera, em Olímpia, foram substituídas por colunas de pedra. Este processo foi propagado para outras estruturas religiosas de modo que alguns edifícios de pedra sobreviveram através dos tempos. A arquitetura grega precede os períodos helenístico e romano (a arquitetura romana foi fortemente copiada da grega). Esses templos são os únicos edifícios que sobreviveram em grande quantidade. Portanto, a maior parte do nosso conceito de arquitetura clássica é baseado nessas estruturas religiosas. O Partenon, que serviu como tesouraria e local de veneração das divindades, é amplamente considerado o maior exemplo da arquitetura clássica.

Arquitetura indiana editar

Vishvakarman, Divine Architect of Vedas in a modern Hindu representation: note Chhatra.

A arquitetura indiana está relacionada com a história e com as religiões de vários períodos do tempo, bem como também com a geografia e/ou geologia do subcontinente indiano. A Índia foi historicamente atravessada por rotas comerciais originárias de lugares distantes como, por exeplo, Siraf e China, bem como também sofreu invasões por estrangeiros que resultaram em várias influências destes em seus estilos nativos. A diversidade cultural indiana é representada em sua arquitetura, de modo que esta compreende uma mistura de tradições nativas antigas e variadas em vários tipos de construções, utilizando de tecnologias e modelos europeus e asiáticos.

Budismo editar

Buddhist architecture developed in South Asia beginning in the third century BCE. Two types of structures are associated with early Buddhism: viharas and stupas. Originally, Viharas were temporary shelters used by wandering monks during the rainy season, but these structures later developed to accommodate the growing and increasingly formalized Buddhist monasticism. An existing example is at Nalanda (Bihar).

The initial function of the stupa was the veneration and safe-guarding of the relics of the Buddha. The earliest existing example of a stupa is in Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh). In accordance with changes in religious practice, stupas were gradually incorporated into chaitya-grihas (stupa halls). These reached their highpoint in the first century BCE, exemplified by the cave complexes of Ajanta and Ellora (Maharashtra).

The pagoda is an evolution of the Indian stupa that is marked by a tiered tower with multiple eaves common in China, Japan, Korea, Nepal and other parts of Asia. Buddhist temples were developed rather later and outside South Asia, where Buddhism gradually declined from the early centuries CE onwards, though an early example is that of the Mahabodhi Temple at Bodh Gaya in Bihar. The architectural structure of the stupa spread across Asia, taking on many diverse forms as details specific to different regions were incorporated into the overall design. It was spread to China and the Asian region by Araniko, a Nepali architect in the early 13th century for Kublai Khan.

Hinduism editar

The Sikhara of the Raghunath Temple at Jammu, India is built in the Nagara style of temple architecture.

The Brihadeeswarar Temple, Tanjavur, built in the Dravida style

Hindu temple architecture is based on Sthapatya Veda and many other ancient religious texts like the Brihat Samhita, Vastu Shastra and Shilpa Shastras in accordance to the design principles and guidelines believed to have been laid by the divine architect Vishvakarma. It evolved over a period of more than 2000 years. The Hindu architecture conforms to strict religious models that incorporate elements of astronomy and sacred geometry. In Hindu belief, the temple represents the macrocosm of the universe as well as the microcosm of inner space. While the underlying form of Hindu temple architecture follows strict traditions, considerable variation occurs with the often intense decorative embellishments and ornamentation.

A basic Hindu temple consists of an inner sanctum, the garbhagriha or womb-chamber, a congregation hall, and possibly an antechamber and porch. The sanctum is crowned by a tower-like sikhara. The Hindu temple represents Mount Meru, the axis of the universe. There are strict rules which describe the themes and sculptures on the outer walls of the temple buildings.

The two primary styles that have developed are the Nagara style of Northern India and the Dravida style of Southern India. A prominent difference between the two styles are the elaborate gateways employed in the South. They are also easily distinguishable by the shape and decoration of their śikharas. The Nagara style is beehive-shaped while the Dravida style is pyramid-shaped.

Byzantine architecture editar

Hagia Sophia, the Church of Holy Wisdom

The 6th-century Kariye Camii located in Istanbul is now a museum.

The ruins of Menüçehr Camii near Kars, Turkey, believed to be the oldest Seljuk mosque in Anatolia

Byzantine architecture evolved from Roman architecture. Eventually, a style emerged incorporating Near East influences and the Greek cross plan for church design. In addition, brick replaced stone, classical order was less strictly observed, mosaics replaced carved decoration, and complex domes were erected. One of the great breakthroughs in the history of Western architecture occurred when Justinian's architects invented a complex system providing for a smooth transition from a square plan of the church to a circular dome (or domes) by means of squinches or pendentives. The prime example of early Byzantine religious architecture is the Hagia Sophia in Istanbul.

Islam editar

Byzantine architecture had a great influence on early Islamic architecture with its characteristic round arches, vaults and domes. Many forms of mosques have evolved in different regions of the Islamic world. Notable mosque types include the early Abbasid mosques, T-type mosques, and the central-dome mosques of Anatolia.

Interior of the Mezquita, a hypostyle mosque with columns arranged in grid pattern, in Córdoba, Spain

The earliest styles in Islamic architecture produced Arab-plan or hypostyle mosques during the Umayyad Dynasty. These mosques follow a square or rectangular plan with enclosed courtyard and covered prayer hall. Most early hypostyle mosques had flat prayer hall roofs, which required numerous columns and supports.^[3] The Mezquita in Córdoba, Spain was constructed as a hypostyle mosque supported by over 850 columns.^[4] Arab-plan mosques continued under the Abbasid dynasty.

The Ottomans introduced central dome mosques in the 15th century that have a large dome centered over the prayer hall. In addition to having one large dome at the center, there are often smaller domes that exist off-center over the prayer hall or throughout the rest of the mosque, in areas where prayer is not performed.^[5] The Dome of the Rock mosque in Jerusalem is perhaps the best known example of a central dome mosque.

Iwan mosques are most notable for their domed chambers and iwans, which are vaulted spaces open out on one end. In iwan mosques, one or more iwans face a central courtyard that serves as the prayer hall. The style represents a borrowing from pre-Islamic Iranian architecture and has been used almost exclusively for mosques in Iran. Many iwan mosques are converted Zoroastrian fire temples where the courtyard was used to house the sacred fire.^[3] Today, iwan mosques are no longer built.^[5] The Shah Mosque in Isfahan, Iran is a classic example of an iwan mosque.

View of the square three-tiered minaret of the Mosque of Uqba (Great Mosque of Kairouan); this mosque, founded in 670, is one of the most impressive mosques in North Africa, situated in Kairouan, Tunisia

A common feature in mosques is the minaret, the tall, slender tower that usually is situated at one of the corners of the mosque structure. The top of the minaret is always the highest point in mosques that have one, and often the highest point in the immediate area. The first mosques had no minarets, and even nowadays the most conservative Islamic movements, like Wahhabis, avoid building minarets, seeing them as ostentatious and unnecessary. The first minaret was constructed in 665 in Baçorá during the reign of the Umayyad caliph Muawiyah I. Muawiyah encouraged the construction of minarets, as they were supposed to bring mosques on par with Christian churches with their bell towers. Consequently, mosque architects borrowed the shape of the bell tower for their minarets, which were used for essentially the same purpose — calling the faithful to prayer.^[6]

Domes have been a hallmark of Islamic architecture since the 7th century. As time progressed, the sizes of mosque domes grew, from occupying only a small part of the roof near the mihrab to encompassing all of the roof above the prayer hall. Although domes normally took on the shape of a hemisphere, the Mughals in India popularized onion-shaped domes in South Asia and Persia.^[7]

The prayer hall, or musalla, in a Turkish mosque, with a minbar

People washing before prayer at the Badshahi mosque in Lahore, Pakistan

The prayer hall, also known as the musalla, has no furniture; chairs and pews are absent from the prayer hall.^[8] Prayer halls contain no images of people, animals, and spiritual figures although they may be decorated with Arabic calligraphy and verses from the Qur'an on the walls.

Usually opposite the entrance to the prayer hall is the qibla wall, which is the visually emphasized area inside the prayer hall. The qibla wall is normally set perpendicular to a line leading to Mecca.^[9] Congregants pray in rows parallel to the qibla wall and thus arrange themselves so they face Mecca. In the qibla wall, usually at its center, is the mihrab, a niche or depression indicating the qibla wall. Usually the mihrab is not occupied by furniture either. Sometimes, especially during Friday prayers, a raised minbar or pulpit is located to the side of the mihrab for a khatib or some other speaker to offer a sermon (khutbah). The mihrab serves as the location where the imam leads the five daily prayers on a regular basis.^[10]

Mosques often have ablution fountains or other facilities for washing in their entryways or courtyards. However, worshippers at much smaller mosques often have to use restrooms to perform their ablutions. In traditional mosques, this function is often elaborated into a freestanding building in the center of a courtyard.^[4] Modern mosques may have a variety of amenities available to their congregants and the community, such as health clinics, libraries and gymnasiums.

Medieval architecture editar

Norwegian stave church

The religious architecture of Christian churches in the Middle Ages featured the Latin cross plan, which takes the Roman Basilica as its primary model with subsequent developments. It consists of a nave, transepts, and the altar stands at the east end (see Cathedral diagram). Also, cathedrals influenced or commissioned by Justinian employed the Byzantine style of domes and a Greek cross (resembling a plus sign), centering attention on the altar at the center of the church. The Church of the Intercession on the Nerl is an excellent example of Russian orthodox architecture in the Middle Ages. The Urnes stave church (Urnes stavkyrkje) in Norway is a superb example of a medieval stave church.

Gothic architecture editar

Chartres Cathedral

Gothic architecture was particularly associated with cathedrals and other churches, which flourished in Europe during the high and late medieval period. Beginning in 12th century France, it was known as "the French Style" during the period. The style originated at the abbey church of Saint-Denis in Saint-Denis, near Paris.^[11] Other notable gothic religious structures include Notre Dame de Paris, the Cathedral of Our Lady of Amiens, and the Chartres Cathedral.

Renaissance architecture editar

The Basilica of Saint Peter, Rome

The Renaissance brought a return of classical influence and a new emphasis on rational clarity. Renaissance architecture represents a conscious revival of Roman Architecture with its symmetry, mathematical proportions, and geometric order. Filippo Brunelleschi's plan for the Santa Maria del Fiore as the dome of the Florence Cathedral in 1418 was one of the first important religious architectural designs of the Italian renaissance.

Baroque architecture editar

Baroque façade of Santa Susanna, by Carlo Maderno

Evolving from the renaissance style, the baroque style was most notably experienced in religious art and architecture. Most architectural historians regard Michelangelo's design of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome as a precursor to the Baroque style. Baroque style can be recognized by broader interior spaces (replacing long narrow naves), more playful attention to light and shadow, extensive ornamentation, large frescoes, focus on interior art, and frequently, a dramatic central exterior projection. The most important early example of the baroque period was the Santa Susanna by Carlo Maderno. Saint Paul's Cathedral in London by Christopher Wren is regarded as the prime example of the rather late influence of the Baroque style in England.

Mormon temples editar

Salt Lake Temple

Temples of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints offer a unique look at design as it has changed from the simple church like structure of the Kirtland Temple built in the 1830s, to the castellated Gothic styles of the early Utah temples, to the dozens of mass-produced modern temples built today. Early temples, and some modern temples, have a priesthood assembly room with two sets of pulpits at each end of the room, with chairs or benches that can be altered to face either way. Most, but not all temples have the recognizable statue of the Angel Moroni atop a spire. The Nauvoo Temple and the Salt Lake Temple are adorned with symbolic stonework, representing various aspects of the faith.

Modern and post-modern architectures editar

Community of Christ Temple in Independence, Missouri, USA is postmodern in design.

Modern architecture spans several styles with similar characteristics resulting in simplification of form and the elimination of ornament. The most influential modernist architects in the early to mid 20th century include Rudolf Schwarz, Dominikus Boehm, and Auguste Perret.^[12] While secular structures clearly had the greater influence on the development of modern architecture, several excellent examples of modern architecture can be found in religious buildings of the 20th century. For example, Unity Temple in Chicago is a Unitarian Universalist congregation designed by Frank Lloyd Wright. The United States Air Force Academy Cadet Chapel, started in 1954 and completed in 1962, was designed by Walter Netsch and is an excellent example of modern religious architecture. It has been described as a "phalanx of fighters" turned on their tails and pointing heavenward. In 1967, Architect Pietro Belluschi designed the strikingly modern Cathedral of St. Mary of the Assumption (San Francisco), the first Catholic cathedral in the United States intended to conform to Vatican II.

Post-modern architecture may be described by unapologetically diverse aesthetics where styles collide, form exists for its own sake, and new ways of viewing familiar styles and space abound. The Temple at Independence, Missouri was conceived by Japanese architect Gyo Obata after the concept of the chambered nautilus. The Catholic Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels (Los Angeles) was designed in 1998 by Jose Rafael Moneo in a post-modern style. The structure evokes the area's Hispanic heritage through the use of adobe coloring while combining stark modern form with some traditional elements. The Basilica of Our Lady of Licheń on the other hand is a much more traditional edifice. Designed by Barbara Bielecka and built between 1994 and 2004, its form includes references to a number of Polish structures. The columns possess a slenderness and delicacy inspired by those of the Renaissance court of Wawel Castle in Kraków, while the huge 420-foot spire that will be erected next to the basilica bears more than an accidental resemblance to the Baroque spire that adorns the Jasna Gora monastery of Czestochowa, home of the Black Madonna.

Shaker communities editar

Shaker communities were semiotically architectured upon the crux of the compass rose.{{carece de fontes}}

External links editar

O Commons possui categorias relacionadas com Religious architecture e Religious buildings.

Interfaith Forum on Religion, Art and Architecture American Institute of Architects
Architecture, Culture & Spirituality
Sacred Architecture online journal

[1] Great Mosque of Kairouan (Qantara Mediterranean Heritage)

[2] John Stothoff Badeau and John Richard Hayes, The Genius of Arab civilization: source of Renaissance. Taylor & Francis. 1983. p. 104

[Masdjid1-3] Hillenbrand, R. «Masdjid. I. In the central Islamic lands». In: P.J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Brill Academic Publishers. ISSN 1573-3912

[mit-handout-4] «Religious Architecture and Islamic Cultures». Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Consultado em 9 de abril de 2006

[mit-vocab-5] «Vocabulary of Islamic Architecture». Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Consultado em 9 de abril de 2006. Cópia arquivada em 24 de novembro de 2005

[Manara-6] Hillenbrand, R. «Manara, Manar». In: P.J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Brill Academic Publishers. ISSN

[7] Asher, Catherine B. (24 de setembro de 1992). «Aurangzeb and the Islamization of the Mughal style». Architecture of Mughal India. [S.l.]: Cambridge University Press. p. 256. ISBN

[unitulsa-8] «Mosque FAQ». The University of Tulsa. Consultado em 9 de abril de 2006 ^{[ligação inativa]}

[9] Bierman, Irene A. (16 de dezembro de 1998). Writing Signs: Fatimid Public Text. [S.l.]: University of California Press. p. 150. ISBN

[10] «Terms 1: Mosque». University of Tokyo Institute of Oriental Culture. Consultado em 9 de abril de 2006

[11] Andrzej Piotrowski (2011), Architecture of Thought, U of Minnesota Press, p. 23

[12] Steven J. Schloeder, Architecture in Communion: Implementing the Second Vatican Council through Liturgy and Architecture. (Ignatius Press: 1998): 23-24 and 234-38. ISBN 0-89870-631-9.

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