Usuário:Okada9876/Timeline of thermodynamics (1)
Um cronograma de eventos relacionados com a termodinâmica.
Antes de 1800
editar- 1650 – Otto von Guericke constrói a primeira bomba de vácuo.
- 1660 – Robert Boyle descobre experimentalmente a Lei de Boyle, que relaciona pressão e volume dos gases (publicada 1662).
- 1665 – Robert Hooke declarou: "Heat being nothing else but a very brisk and vehement agitation of the parts of a body."[carece de fontes ]
[1] (Calor é apenas uma agitação muito rápida e veemente das partes de um corpo).
- 1669 – J.J. Becher propõe uma teoria da combustão envolvendo combustível da Terra (Latin terra pinguis).
- 1676–1689 – Gottfried Leibniz desenvolve o conceito da força viva, uma versão limitadalei da conservação da energia.
- 1679 – Denis Papin projetou a Marmita de Papin que inspirou o desenvolvimento da máquina a vapor de pistão e cilindro.
- 1694–1734 – Georg Ernst Stahl chama a teoria de Becher dos combustíveis da terra de flogisto e desenvolve a teoria.
- 1698 – Thomas Savery registra a patente de uma rudimentar máquina a vapor.
- 1702 – Guillaume Amontons introduz o conceito de zero absoluto, baseado em observações dos gases
- 1738 – Daniel Bernoulli publica o livro Hydrodynamica, iniciando a Teoria cinética dos gases.
- 1749 – Émilie du Châtelet, traduz para o francês e comenta o livro de Newton: Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica(Princípios Matemáticos da Filosofia Natural), deriva a conservação de energia dos primeiros princípios da mecânica newtoniana.
- 1761 – Joseph Black descobre que o gelo absorve o calor sem alterar sua temperatura quando está derretendo.
- 1772 – Black's student Daniel Rutherford descobre o nitrogênio, que chama de ar flogisticado, e juntos eles explicam os resultados em termos da teoria do flogisto
- 1776 – John Smeaton publica um artigo sobre experimentos relacionados a potencia, trabalho, momento e energia cinética, apoiando a conservação de energia
- 1777 – Carl Wilhelm Scheele distingue os modos de transferência de calor: irradiação térmica, convecção e condução
- 1783 – Antoine Lavoisier descobiu o oxigenio e desenvolve explicações para combustão; no documento "Réflexions sur le phlogistique"(Reflexões sobre o flogisto), ele deprecia a teoria do flogisto e propõe a teoria calórica.
- 1784 – Jan Ingenhousz descreve o movimento Browniano de partículas de carvão na água
- 1791 – Pierre Prévost mostra que todos os corpos irradiam calor, não importa quão quentes ou frios eles sejam
- 1798 – Conde de Rumford (Benjamin Thompson) realiza medições do calor gerado pelo atrito na usinagem de canhões e desenvolve a ideia de que o calor é uma forma de energia cinética. Suas medições são inconsistentes com a teoria calórica, e também são imprecisos para refuta-la.
1800-1847
editar- 1802 – Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac Publicou a lei de Charles, descoberta (mas não publicada) por Jacques Charles por volta de 1787, que mostra a dependência de temperatura e volume. Gay-Lussac também formulou a relação entre temperatura e pressão (lei de Gay-Lussac)
- 1804 – Sir John Leslie observa que uma superfície preta fosca irradia mais calor do que uma superfície polida, sugerindo a importância da radiação de corpo negro
- 1805 – William Hyde Wollaston defende a conservação de energia em The Bakerian Lecture : on the force of percussion
- 1808 – John Dalton defende a teoria calórica em A New System of Chemical Philosophy (Novo sistema de filosofia química) e descreve como se combina com a matéria, especialmente nos gases;ele propõe que a capacidade de calor dos gases varia inversamente com a massa atômico
- 1810 – Sir John Leslie congela a água artificialmente, usando uma bomba de ar.
- 1813 – Peter Ewart apoia a ideia da conservação da energia em seu artigo On the measure of moving force(Na medida da força de movimento); o papel influencia fortemente Dalton e seu pupilo, James Joule
- 1819 – Pierre Louis Dulong and Alexis Thérèse Petit give the Dulong-Petit law for the specific heat capacity of a crystal
- 1820 – John Herapath desenvolve algumas idéias na teoria cinética de gases, mas associa erroneamente a temperatura com momento molecular em vez de energia cinética; seu trabalho recebe pouca atenção, diferente de Joule
- 1822 – Joseph Fourier introduz formalmente o uso de dimensões para quantidades físicas em sua Théorie Analytique de la Chaleur (Teoria Analítica do Calor)
- 1822 – Marc Seguin escreve a John Herschel apoiando a conservação da energia e teoria cinética
- 1824 – Sadi Carnot analisa a eficiência do motor a vapor usando teoria calórica; desenvolve a noção de processos reversíveis, e, postulando que não existe tal coisa na natureza, estabelece as bases para a segunda lei da termodinâmica, iniciando a ciência da termodinâmica.
- 1827 – Robert Brown descobre o Movimento browniano do pólen e partículas de corante na água
- 1831 – Macedonio Melloni demonstra que a radiação do corpo negro pode ser refletida, refratada, e polarised da mesma maneira que a luz
- 1834 – Émile Clapeyron populariza o trabalho de Carnot através de uma formulação gráfica e analítica. Ele também combinou lei de Boyle, lei de Charles, e lei de Gay-Lussac para produzir a Lei Geral dos gases (PV/T = k)
- 1841 – Julius Robert von Mayer, um cientista amador, escreve um artigo sobre a conservação da energia, mas sua falta de formação acadêmica leva à sua rejeição
- 1842 – Mayer faz uma conexão entre trabalho, calor e human metabolism com base em suas observações do blood; he calculates the mechanical equivalent of heat
- 1842 – William Robert Grove demonstrates the thermal dissociation of molecules into their constituent atoms, by showing that steam can be disassociated into oxygen and hydrogen, and the process reversed
- 1843 – John James Waterston fully expounds the kinetic theory of gases, but is ridiculed and ignored
- 1843 – James Joule experimentally finds the mechanical equivalent of heat
- 1845 – Henri Victor Regnault added Avogadro's Law to the Combined Gas Law to produce the Ideal Gas Law. PV = nRT
- 1846 – Karl-Hermann Knoblauch publishes De calore radiante disquisitiones experimentis quibusdam novis illustratae
- 1846 – Grove publishes an account of the general theory of the conservation of energy in On The Correlation of Physical Forces
- 1847 – Hermann von Helmholtz publishes a definitive statement of the conservation of energy, the first law of thermodynamics
1848-1899
editar- 1848 – William Thomson extends the concept of absolute zero from gases to all substances
- 1849 – William John Macquorn Rankine calculates the correct relationship between saturated vapour pressure and temperature using his hypothesis of molecular vortices
- 1850 – Rankine uses his vortex theory to establish accurate relationships between the temperature, pressure, and density of gases, and expressions for the latent heat of evaporation of a liquid; he accurately predicts the surprising fact that the apparent specific heat of saturated steam will be negative
- 1850 – Rudolf Clausius gives the first clear joint statement of the first and second law of thermodynamics, abandoning the caloric theory, but preserving Carnot's principle
- 1851 – Thomson gives an alternative statement of the second law
- 1852 – Joule and Thomson demonstrate that a rapidly expanding gas cools, later named the Joule–Thomson effect or Joule–Kelvin effect
- 1854 – Helmholtz puts forward the idea of the heat death of the universe
- 1854 – Clausius establishes the importance of dQ/T (Clausius's theorem), but does not yet name the quantity
- 1854 – Rankine introduces his thermodynamic function, later identified as entropy
- 1856 – August Krönig publishes an account of the kinetic theory of gases, probably after reading Waterston's work
- 1857 – Clausius gives a modern and compelling account of the kinetic theory of gases in his On the nature of motion called heat
- 1859 – James Clerk Maxwell discovers the distribution law of molecular velocities
- 1859 – Gustav Kirchhoff shows that energy emission from a black body is a function of only temperature and frequency
- 1862 – "Disgregation," a precursor of entropy, was defined in 1862 by Clausius as the magnitude of the degree of separation of molecules of a body
- 1865 – Clausius introduces the modern macroscopic concept of entropy
- 1865 – Josef Loschmidt applies Maxwell's theory to estimate the number-density of molecules in gases, given observed gas viscosities.
- 1867 – Maxwell asks whether Maxwell's demon could reverse irreversible processes
- 1870 – Clausius proves the scalar virial theorem
- 1872 – Ludwig Boltzmann states the Boltzmann equation for the temporal development of distribution functions in phase space, and publishes his H-theorem
- 1873 - Johannes Diderik van der Waals formulates his equation of state
- 1874 – Thomson formally states the second law of thermodynamics
- 1876 – Josiah Willard Gibbs publishes the first of two papers (the second appears in 1878) which discuss phase equilibria, statistical ensembles, the free energy as the driving force behind chemical reactions, and chemical thermodynamics in general.[carece de fontes ]
- 1876 – Loschmidt criticises Boltzmann's H theorem as being incompatible with microscopic reversibility (Loschmidt's paradox).
- 1877 – Boltzmann states the relationship between entropy and probability
- 1879 – Jožef Stefan observes that the total radiant flux from a blackbody is proportional to the fourth power of its temperature and states the Stefan–Boltzmann law
- 1884 – Boltzmann derives the Stefan–Boltzmann blackbody radiant flux law from thermodynamic considerations
- 1888 – Henri-Louis Le Chatelier states his principle that the response of a chemical system perturbed from equilibrium will be to counteract the perturbation
- 1889 – Walther Nernst relates the voltage of electrochemical cells to their chemical thermodynamics via the Nernst equation
- 1889 – Svante Arrhenius introduces the idea of activation energy for chemical reactions, giving the Arrhenius equation
- 1893 – Wilhelm Wien discovers the displacement law for a blackbody's maximum specific intensity
1900–1944
editar- 1900 – Max Planck suggests that light may be emitted in discrete frequencies, giving his law of black-body radiation
- 1905 – Albert Einstein argues that the reality of quanta would explain the photoelectric effect
- 1905 – Einstein mathematically analyzes Brownian motion as a result of random molecular motion
- 1906 – Nernst presents a formulation of the third law of thermodynamics
- 1907 – Einstein uses quantum theory to estimate the heat capacity of an Einstein solid
- 1909 – Constantin Carathéodory develops an axiomatic system of thermodynamics
- 1910 – Einstein and Marian Smoluchowski find the Einstein–Smoluchowski formula for the attenuation coefficient due to density fluctuations in a gas
- 1911 – Paul Ehrenfest and Tatjana Ehrenfest–Afanassjewa publish their classical review on the statistical mechanics of Boltzmann, Begriffliche Grundlagen der statistischen Auffassung in der Mechanik
- 1912 – Peter Debye gives an improved heat capacity estimate by allowing low-frequency phonons
- 1916 – Sydney Chapman and David Enskog systematically develop the kinetic theory of gases.
- 1916 – Einstein considers the thermodynamics of atomic spectral lines and predicts stimulated emission
- 1919 – James Jeans discovers that the dynamical constants of motion determine the distribution function for a system of particles
- 1920 – Megh Nad Saha states his ionization equation
- 1923 – Debye and Erich Hückel publish a statistical treatment of the dissociation of electrolytes
- 1924 – Satyendra Nath Bose introduces Bose–Einstein statistics, in a paper translated by Einstein
- 1926 – Enrico Fermi and Paul Dirac introduce Fermi–Dirac statistics for fermions
- 1927 – John von Neumann introduces the density matrix representation and establishes quantum statistical mechanics
- 1928 – John B. Johnson discovers Johnson noise in a resistor
- 1928 – Harry Nyquist derives the fluctuation-dissipation theorem, a relationship to explain Johnson noise in a resistor
- 1929 – Lars Onsager derives the Onsager reciprocal relations
- 1938 – Anatoly Vlasov proposes the Vlasov equation for a correct dynamical description of ensembles of particles with collective long range interaction.
- 1939 – Nikolay Krylov and Nikolay Bogolyubov give the first consistent microscopic derivation of the Fokker-Planck equation in the single scheme of classical and quantum mechanics.
- 1942 – Joseph L. Doob states his theorem on Gauss–Markov processes
- 1944 – Lars Onsager gives an analytic solution to the 2-dimensional Ising model, including its phase transition
1945–present
editar- 1945–1946 – Nikolay Bogoliubov develops a general method for a microscopic derivation of kinetic equations for classical statistical systems using BBGKY hierarchy
- 1947 – Nikolay Bogoliubov and Kirill Gurov extend this method for a microscopic derivation of kinetic equations for quantum statistical systems
- 1948 – Claude Elwood Shannon establishes information theory
- 1957 – Aleksandr Solomonovich Kompaneets derives his Compton scattering Fokker–Planck equation
- 1957 – Ryogo Kubo derives the first of the Green-Kubo relations for linear transport coefficients
- 1957 – Edwin T. Jaynes gives MaxEnt interpretation of thermodynamics from information theory.
- 1960–1965 – Dmitry Zubarev develops the method of non-equilibrium statistical operator, which becomes a classical tool in the statistical theory of non-equilibrium processes
- 1972 – Jacob Bekenstein suggests that black holes have an entropy proportional to their surface area
- 1974 – Stephen Hawking predicts that black holes will radiate particles with a black-body spectrum which can cause black hole evaporation
- 1977 – Ilya Prigogine wins the Nobel prize for his work on dissipative structures in thermodynamic systems far from equilibrium. The importation and dissipation of energy could reverse the 2nd law of thermodynamics
Ver também
editar- History of physics
- History of thermodynamics
- Timeline of information theory
- List of notable textbooks in statistical mechanics
Referências
editar- ↑ Hooke, Robert, Robert (1965). Micrographia. s.l.: Science Heritage. 12 páginas
[[Categoria:História das ideias]]